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From: pvdl@best.com(Peter van der Linden)
Newsgroups: comp.lang.java.programmer,comp.lang.java.help,comp.lang.java.gui,comp.answers,news.answers
Subject: Java Programmers FAQ
Followup-To: poster
Date: 17 Nov 1997 09:20:27 -0800
Lines: 3673
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.EDU
Message-ID: <64pucr$t48$1@shell15.ba.best.com>
NNTP-Posting-Host: shell15.ba.best.com
X-Trace: 879787229 7287 pvdl 206.184.139.132
Summary: This posting answers frequently-asked questions by Java programmers
Path: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!bloom-beacon.mit.edu!tribune.meitca.com!ulowell.uml.edu!newsfeed.wizvax.net!usenet.logical.net!nntprelay.mathworks.com!news1.best.com!nntp1.ba.best.com!not-for-mail
Xref: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu comp.lang.java.programmer:96540 comp.lang.java.help:9606 comp.lang.java.gui:5433 comp.answers:28982 news.answers:116970
Archive-name: computer-lang/java/programmers-faq
Posting-Frequency: twice-weekly
Last-modified: 1997/11/17
URL: http://www.best.com/~pvdl/javafaq.html
Copyright: (c) 1997 Peter van der Linden
Maintainer: Peter van der Linden (pvdl@best.com)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Help stop Microsoft from trying to destroy Java Portability
As the Java Programmers FAQ maintainer, I ask you to drop all use of the
near-Java tools from Microsoft. Don't use any Microsoft near-Java tools
until Microsoft stops trying to undermine and divide Java.
* don't use J++ or Visual J++ (use the tools from a score of other
vendors)
* don't use Internet Explorer (use Netscape)
* don't use the Microsoft Java SDK. (Use Sun's JDK)
The biggest value of Java is its portability. If programmers accept
Microsoft tools that destroy Java portability by changing core Java
libraries and protocols, it will set the computer industry back years.
Support 100% Pure Java. Encourage Microsoft to make its near-Java
implementation pass the Java compatability test suite. Junk all non-standard
Microsoft not-quite-Java software. Use the free Java compilers downloadable
from http://java.sun.com.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Frequently Asked Questions (with answers) for Java programmers
Most of the Java FAQs here are intended for experienced programmers. To
distinguish this from other Java FAQs, this is the "Programmer's FAQ" and
will be posted mostly in
* comp.lang.java.programmer
* comp.lang.java.help
* comp.lang.java.gui
* comp.answers.
Latest copy of this FAQ is available at: http://www.best.com/~pvdl
This FAQ reflects the latest and most current version of Java: JDK 1.1.4.
0. A WORD FROM OUR SPONSOR
1. LOOKING FOR INFORMATION
2. COMPILERS, ETC.
3. LANGUAGE ISSUES
4. AWT and Related Topics
4.0 AWT
4.1 APPLETS
4.2 BROWSERS
5. CORE LIBRARIES
6. I/O
7. NETWORKING & DISTRIBUTED OBJECTS
8. MULTI-MEDIA
9. SECURITY
10. Java IDIOMS
11. FOR C and C++ AFFICIONADOS
12. FURTHER RESOURCES
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
0. A WORD FROM OUR SPONSOR
This Java FAQ is compiled and maintained as a service to the Java community.
Learning Java
Please consider these books when you are looking for a programming text. You
can get more info on these books at http://www.best.com/~pvdl
0.1"Not Just Java" by Peter van der Linden, $35
publ 1997 Sun Press/Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-864638-4
This should be your first book on Java -- and it doesn't teach Java
programming. Instead, this book describes the trends and implications
of Java and related technologies. Clear explanations with diagrams
covering Java, CORBA, thin clients, network computers, RMI, multi-tier
systems, Java threads, ActiveX, OLE, JavaBeans, JDBC, etc. For
engineers, executives, and all the job titles in between.
Look at reader reviews at:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0138646384/4112-4025659-560808
0.2 "Just Java Third Ed." by Peter van der Linden, $44.95
publ Oct 1997 Sun Press/Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-784174-4
An introduction to Java Programming, for people who can already program
in another language. Filled with common sense examples, and anecdotes
from the computer industry. Learning Java is enjoyable, stimulating fun
with this book. Comes with a CD including the compiler and sample code.
Covers Java 1.0 and 1.1, with a preview of Java 1.2 Swing classes.
Look at reviews at:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0137841744/7892-5006833-225957
0.3 "Expert C Programming" by Peter van der Linden, $35,
publ 1994 Sun Press/Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-177429-8.
Everyone's second book on C. Unix Review gave it "5 stars". "Expert C
Programming" teaches you the tips and techniques used by the very best
C programmers in the world. Based on a decade in Sun's compiler and OS
groups.
Please look at reader reviews at:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0131774298/4112-4025659-560808
These books can be ordered online from http://www.cbooks.com Or by
phone from Quantum Books 617 494-5042 (in USA) during business hours.
-------------------
1. Looking For Information
1.0 Is Java "Open" or Proprietary?
A. Java is a freely-available open specification. Sun
Microsystems publishes the Java specifications and public
interfaces as open specifications that can be independently
implemented by anyone without charge (termed a "clean-room"
implementation in industry jargon). Specifically, Sun includes a
royalty-free license in the front of the Addison-Wesley books
containing the specification.
Further, by submitting Java specifications to be ISO/IEC
standards, Sun is giving up some control in exchange for the world
being able to refer to a Java specification that is guaranteed to
be open by ISO/IEC's charter and rules.
Sun Microsystems has invested significant time and money to create
a Java implementation. It has licensed, for a fee, the results of
this work (the source code for the implementation) to 117
companies and organizations who have asked for it, including
competitor Microsoft. Sun has also allowed free download and use
of the Java implementation (binary executables) by anyone. Over 1
million computer users have downloaded the JDK binaries for free
in the seven month period from February 1997.
1.1 What is the best way to refer someone to the FAQ when they ask
question I know is answered there?
A. The Java Programmers FAQ gives the answer to your question in
section N.n. ...
This gives them the answer, and shows them where to go for future
questions (it also demonstrates that the FAQ can answer their
questions, providing an incentive to go there next time.)
1.2 Where can I look at the definitive Java Language Specification?
A. This is available online at:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/html/index.html (Java 1.0)
and the Java 1.1 update at:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/html/1.1Update.html
This is also available as a book in printed form (details at
website).
1.3 Where can I find a full list of Java books and book reviews?
A. http://lightyear.ncsa.uiuc.edu/~srp/java/reviews.html
1.4 How do I search Deja News for past postings on Java topics, e.g.
the FAQ?
A. Go to http://www.dejanews.com/home_sf.shtml
+ Under "Newsgroups" enter "comp.lang.java.programmer" (or
whatever)
+ Under "Subject" enter "Frotteur" (or other topic you find
pressing)
+ Click "Create Filter"
+ It will go to a new document, and you should click the link
labeled
nnn Documents (nnn is some number).
This makes finding information very easy.
Also look at http://sunsite.unc.edu/java/cgi-bin/query
and look at http://asknpac.npac.syr.edu/ for Java newsgroup search
http://www.javaworld.com/search.html can search the Javaworld
newspaper
1.5 How do I check on known bugs in JDK 1.1?
A. Look at
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/knownbugs/index.html
Note that only bugs that Sun deems "important" are listed there.
The criteria for "important" are not published.
After you have checked whether the bug is already listed, you can
submit a bug report through:
http://java.sun.com:80/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi
You can even send in an RFE or ease-of-use issue there!
If you go to the JDC (that's the Java Developer's Connection) you
can do a keyword search against the internal Javasoft bugtraq
database, looking by keyword or bug number. JDC has free
registration.
http://developer.javasoft.com should do it.
Also, there's a longer list of known bugs at:
http://www2.vo.lu/homepages/gmid/java.htm
1.6 Is there a Java port to Windows 3.1?
A. Yes, several. IBM's ADK1.02 is available at the following
locations:
http://ncc.hursley.ibm.com/javainfo/latest/answers/faq0.html
http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/formula
Netscape Navigator for Win3.1 has Java support [anyone know the
version?]
You could also consider JavaSoft's JavaPC $100 kit that converts a
PC into a thin client Java system. Details are sparse as yet, but
this is probably more for business users than personal PCs.
Check http://java.sun.com/pr/1997/april/pr970402-07.html
1.7 I see a lot of postings from magazines soliciting Java articles.
Are these legitimate?
A. Anyone considering writing for the "Java Developer's Journal",
or any other Sys-Con publication, should be aware that there have
been several instances of programmers complaining that JDJ has not
paid them for commissioned articles.
Another programmer reported that he was not paid by Sys-Con for an
article for their Delphi magazine. There is a pattern of
programmers complaining that SYS-CON has not paid them.
The issue is that Sys-Con will only pay for articles that it
actually prints, even when it explicitly commissioned the article
from you. Some other publishers pay a cancellation or "kill" fee
when they don't run a work they have commissioned. Programmer
beware, and please don't support magazines that are in conflict
over payment with their programmer contributors.
1.8 What are the good folks at project Gnu doing with Java?
A. Guava (the Gnu Java compiler) can be found at
http://http.cs.berkeley.edu/~engberg/guavac/
Kaffe (a JVM) can be found at
http://www.kaffe.org
1.9 Where can I find information about Java Certification?
A. Sun is sponsoring an examination which programmers worldwide
can take. Those passing can use the designation "Sun certified
Java Programmer". There is also a second level test, involving
writing a program to spec, and taking a further test. That results
in the qualification "Sun Certified Java Developer". You can find
out all about the exam at:
http://www.sun.com/service/suned/cert/scjp_11.html
and
http://www.sun.com/service/suned/cert/scjd_11.html
It costs $150 to sit the Java Programmer exam. It is not trivial
to pass the Java certification exam. It requires understanding the
objectives of the test, and the material that is tested for. These
are given, along with sample questions, at the URL mentioned
above.
1.10 I'm looking for a Java style guide on naming conventions.
A. Check out the section "Naming Conventions" in the language
pecification
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/html/6.doc.html#11186
Also take a look at Doug Lea's draft coding standard -
http://gee.cs.oswego.edu/dl/html/javaCodingStd.html
1.11 Where can I find information about future Java APIs?
A. JavaSoft has followed a policy of creating new APIs in
consultation with leading industry participants, then posting the
draft specification for public review and comments. Check the
JavaSoft roadmap of new APIs and products at
http://Java.sun.com:80/products/api-overview/index.html
Also, some APIs that are under consideration, possibly for JDK 1.2
are at:
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/preview/docs/
1.12 How can I find links to recent news about Java?
A. http://lightyear.ncsa.uiuc.edu/~srp/java/javanews.html This
site contains links to late-breaking online news stories about
Java. Highly recommended. Also http://www.roaster.com/news/ is a
good Java news source.
This site is a source of independent news and commentary on the
computer industry, including Java.
http://www.pjprimer.com/media.html. (You have to subscribe
($10/year, 30 day free trial).
1.13 What computers have Java ports?
A. A list of JDK ports is available from
http://java.sun.com/cgi-bin/java-ports.cgi
-------------------
2. COMPILERS, ETC.
2.1 Why did I get an OutOfMemory error when porting working code from
jdk 1.02 -> 1.1
A. The preset memory limit has changed. It went down to 16Mb so as
not to penalize low memory machines. You can adjust it with
java -mx32m Frotz
to get a 32Mb extent.
Also see the Runtime methods freeMemory() and totalMemory().
2.2 Why do I get a "Statement not reached" error from javac for no
apparent reason?
A. JDK1.0 has a limit of 63 words of storage for local variables
in any method. longs and doubles require two words of storage, and
all other primitive types and all reference types require one
word. If you assign values to more than 63 words of local
variables, you will get a "Statement not reached" error on the
statement after you assign to the variable that contains the 64th
word. In JDK 1.1, the low limit was removed.
2.3 Is there a lex and yacc or preferably a flex and bison equivalent
for Java?
A. There is a lex equivalent called JavaLex and a yacc equivalent
called CUP.
LALR(1) parser
JavaLex and JavaCup:
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~appel/modern/java/
LL(k) parser
JavaCC: http://www.suntest.com/Jack/
2.4 Where can I find a byte code obfuscator?
A. HashJava: http://www.blackdown.org/~kbs/hashjava.html
http://www.primenet.com/~ej/
http://www.math.gatech.edu/~mladue/HoseMocha.java
There are also commercial products, such as SourceAgain from
http://www.ahpah.com
Some people have reported problems using these with JDK 1.1.
This obfuscator has been updated to be fully compatible with JDK
1.0 and 1.1:
http://www.monmouth.com/~neil/Obfuscate.html
2.5 Which program is used to create .zip files, compatible with the
java* programs? (eg classes.zip, moz3_0.zip)
A. Use the jar-tool from JDK1.1(.1):
jar [ options ] [manifest] destination input-file
[input-files]
E.g.:
jar cvf myJarFile.jar *.class
creates a compressed archive
jar cvfO myJarFile.zip *.class
creates it fullsize (uncompressed) (note the 'O'-option used for
JDK1.0.2)
On Unix you can also use:
zip -rn ".class" my_file.zip *
Info-ZIP home page: http://www.cdrom.com/pub/infozip/
Latest source code:
ftp://ftp.uu.net/pub/archiving/zip/src/zip21.zip
Netscape's command line version of its JAR packager and signing
tool is called "zigbert". They also have a signing tool with GUI
written in Java. More info at:
http://developer.netscape.com/software/signedobj/jarpack.html
If you zip your .class files for JDK 1.0.2 (for 1.1 you'll use a
Jar)
1. zip your files uncompressed (can use WinZip 6.2 up);
Unix command: zip -r0 classes.zip <directories>
2. Make sure the main class has no directory beside it inside
the archive, but your packages do;
3. Put the archive in the same directory as the .html page;
4. Put something like the following tag in the .html file:
<APPLET CODEBASE="."
ARCHIVE=my_zip_file.zip,myOtherZip.zip,thirdfile.zip
CODE="my_main_class.class"
WIDTH=600 HEIGHT=250>
</APPLET>
From JDK 1.1 on, an example of the applet tag used with a jar file
is
<APPLET ARCHIVE=myfile.jar
CODE=myapplet.class
WIDTH=600 HEIGHT=250>
</APPLET>
These lines will use an applet called myapplet that can be found
in the jarfile myfile.jar. You can supply several jar filenames in
a comma-separated list. Jar files are in compressed PKZIP format.
2.6 Can I compile a Java .class file to a binary executable, .exe on a
PC?
A. Some companies make products that do this, but it takes away
one of the most significant benefits of Java: portability of
executables. Consider carefully why you want to do this, and
whether there is a Java way to accomplish your goal. There may be
a good reason for compiling to native code, but it needs to be
thought through.
2.7 How can I performance profile my Java code?
A. java -prof MyClass
produces some basic output in a file called java.prof, showing the
number of times methods were invoked. The output lines are of the
form:
# of calls method called called by time spent
On a Unix system, you can sort the file with something like
sort -r +82 <java.prof > java.sort
More and better Java tools are a third party opportunity.
2.8 When I use javadoc and I click on any java class included in the
jdk why do I get this message?
Netscape is unable to find the file or directory named:
/E|/Jwrkshop/JDK/bin/java.lang.Throwable.html
A. References to the JDK classes assume that *all* generated html
files are in the same directory and, in fact, that all files for
all classes referenced are generated at the same time. There is no
way to generate files incrementally and have them all reference
each other, as you would like.
As long as you have source for everything involved (including the
JDK and all third-party classes), you can list all of your
packages and all of the others on the javadoc command line and
generate the whole set at once, but it is a real pain. Of course,
if you receive any libraries as .class files, even this workaround
will not suffice.
Also javadoc will not generate the image files - you need to get
them from the images directory under the JDK API documentation
files. You can just copy the entire directory into your own doc
directory. javadoc is a very nice concept, with a few
implementation flaws.
2.9 I'm working on a project with lots of classes and I use the JDK. A
recompile from scratch takes forever when I do it a class at a time.
How do I recompile everything?
A. The first way is
javac *.java
Another way is
javac -depend tip.java
where "tip.java" is a class "at the tip of the iceberg", i.e. that
depends on (uses) all the other classes. Typically, this may be
your main class. However, "-depend" is known to be buggy and
cannot be relied upon. It also doesn't issue compile commands in
parallel to make use of multi-processor systems.
Without the "-depend" option, the standard "javac files" doesn't
look beyond the immediately adjacent dependencies to find classes
lower down the hierarchy where the source has changed.
The -depend options searches recursively for depending classes and
recompiles it. This option doesn't help when you have dynamically
loaded classes whose names cannot be determined by thecompiler
from the dependency graph. E.g. you use something like
Class.forName(argv[0]);
The author of the code using those classes should make sure that
those classes are mentioned in a Makefile.
2.10 Why do I get the java.lang.UnsatisfiedLinkError when I run my Java
program containing Native Method invocations?
A. Your program is not able to find your shared library or DLL.
On Windows 95/NT, make sure that the DLL exists in a path that is
included within the PATH environment variable.
On Solaris, make sure that the environment variable
LD_LIBRARY_PATH includes the path of your shared library.
-------------------
3. LANGUAGE ISSUES
3.1 Why doesn't my "hello world" program work?
A. Common causes of failure are:
+ First, did you write an applet or an application? If an
applet, you must make sure that you did extend the
java.applet.Applet class. You must declare your class that is
extended from Applet as "public". If you don't, unfortunately
some browsers will still run the code, while others won't.
+ Your class name and the file name must match exactly, even
letter case. If your class is HelloWorld, your source file
must be HelloWorld.java
+ In JDK 1.0.2 the $CLASSPATH environment variable should
include "." the current dir.
In JDK 1.1, users are no longer required to set the CLASSPATH.
From JDK 1.1.2 on, it is generally an ERROR if the user sets the
CLASSPATH! (except that use of rmic apparently still requires it).
3.2 How can I program linked lists if Java doesn't have pointers?
A. Of all the misconceptions about Java, this is the most
egregious. Far from not having pointers, in Java, object-oriented
programming is conducted exclusively with pointers. In other
words, objects are only ever accessed through pointers, never
directly. The pointers are termed "references" and they are
automatically dereferenced for you.
Java does not have pointer arithmetic or untyped casting. By
removing the ability for programmers to create and modify pointers
in arbitrary ways, Java makes memorymanagement more reliable,
while still allowing dynamic data structures. Also note that Java
has NullPointerException, not NullReferenceException.
A linked list class in Java might start like this:
public class linkedlist {
public linkedlist head;
public linkedlist next;
public Object data;
public linkedlist advanceToNext(linkedlist current) { ...
... }
Another choice for a linked list structure is to use the built-in
class java.util.Vector which accepts and stores arbitrary amounts
of Object data (as a linked list does), and retrieves it by index
number on demand (as an array does). It grows automatically as
needed to accommodate more elements. Insertion at the front of a
Vector is a slow operation compared with insertion in a linked
list, but retrieval is fast. Which is more important in the
application you have?
3.3 What is the true story about how parameters are passed in Java? Is
is by value or by reference?
A. All parameters (values of primitive types, & values that are
references to objects) are passed by value [JLS sect 8.4.1].
However this does not tell the whole story, as objects are always
manipulated through reference variables in Java. Thus one can
equally say that Objects are passed by reference (and the
reference variable is passed by value). This is a consequence of
the fact that variables do not take on the values of "objects" but
values of "references to objects" as described in the previous
answer.
Bottom line: primitive type arguments (int, char, etc) _do not_
change when the corresponding parameter is changed. The fields of
object type arguments _do_ change when the corresponding parameter
fields are changed.
3.4 How, then, can I pass an object to a method, and have the method
change the reference so it points to a different object back in the
calling code?
A. There are two ways. The obvious way is "just add another level
of indirection" -- wrap the object in another class, whose purpose
is simply to be passed as a parameter, allowing the nested object
reference to be modified.
The second alternative is a clearer variant of this. Pass in a
single element array. Since arrays are objects, this works.
void jfoo(Object ref[]){
ref[0] = new Object();
}
...
Object kludge[] = new Object[1];
kludge[0]= myObj;
jfoo(kludge);
if (kludge[0] == myObj) ...
else ...
3.5 Why is String a final class? I often want to override it in some
way.
A. There are several reasons.
The simplest is that being final guarantees that instances of
String are immutable. (The String class implements immutable
objects, but if it were not final it would be possible to write a
subclass of String which permitted instances to be changed.) But
that's an unsatisfying answer,
because the real question is "Why must Strings be immutable?"
One reason is efficiency. It's easier to optimize accesses to an
object that is known to be immutable. Strings are very commonly
used, even used behind the scenes by the Java compiler. Efficiency
gains in the String class can yield big dividends. If no one can
change a String, then
you never have to worry about who else has a reference to your
String.
A more compelling reason is security. Before String was changed to
be final (while Java 1.0 was still in beta) there was a race
condition which could be used to subvert security restrictions. It
had to do with having one thread change a pathname while another
thread was about to open it.
There are other ways to solve these problems, but making String
final is the one that the designers chose.
3.6 What happened to "private protected"?
A. It first appeared in JDK 1.0 FCS (it had not been in the
Betas). Then it was removed in JDK 1.1. It was an ugly hack
syntax-wise, and it didn't fit consistently with the other access
modifiers. It never worked properly: in the versions of the JDK
before it was removed, calls to private protected methods were not
dynamically bound, as they should have been. It added very little
capability to the language. It's always a bad idea to reuse
existing keywords with a different meaning. Using two of them
together only compounds the sin.
The official story is that it was a bug. That's not the full
story. Private protected was put in because it was championed by a
strong advocate. It was pulled out when he was overruled by
popular acclamation.
3.7 I extended the class called Frotz, and the compiler is giving me an
error message "No constructor Frotz()" in the child class. Why?
A. When you define a constructor for a class, unless you
explicitly call the superclass' constructor at the start, a call
to the superclass' parameterless constructor is implicitly
inserted. The problem you're seeing is what happens when the
superclass doesn't *have* a parameterless constructor. The
solution is usually to call the correct version of the superclass'
constructor with the right parameters.
3.8 Why does <unexpected> happen in Java floating point?
A. There are several unexpected things that seem to bite
programmers with floating point. Invariably this is a result of
the programmer not being fully conversant with FP, rather than
some fault in Java.
If you seem to be having problems with floating point, your
problem probably stems from the fact that floating-point
arithmetic is inherently imprecise. You can expect up to 7 digits
of precision with floats and 16 digits with doubles. However, that
does not mean that a number that can be exactly represented in 7
digits decimal, can be exactly represented as a binary floating
point number. On the contrary, that is usually not the case.
Additionally, when Java converts floating point numbers to a
String, as is done when they are output, enough digits are printed
so the number can be read back in with no loss of precision. For
this reason, you may see more "inaccuracies" in floating point
output than you are used to. This policy actually gives you more
consistent results than on a system where floating point output is
deliberately rounded to make the output "pretty".
There is a limitation of FP in JDK 1.0 (fixed in JDK 1.1). Namely,
when you output a floating point number in Java 1.0, the result is
system-dependent and contains no more than six digits after the
decimal point. This bug is fixed in Java 1.1.
For more information and detailed specifications on how Java deals
with floating point, see the following URLs:
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/compatibility.html#incompatibilities
http://java.sun.com/doc/language_specification/javalang.doc.html#1466
http://java.sun.com/doc/language_specification/javalang.doc.html#5899
If you want the rounded floating point output that most languages
have, use the new java.text package of Java 1.1 to limit the
number of digits that are output. If you need more precision than
about 16 digits, use the BigInteger and BigDecimal classes of Java
1.1.
3.9 Why do I get the compiler error message
urltest.java:8: Variable test may not have been initialized.
URL test;
try { test = new URL("http://osprey.avs.dec.com");
} catch (MalformedURLException e) {}
System.out.println("this is url " + test);
}
A. If an exception is raised in the try clause, test will not be
given a value, yet you are using it in the catch clause. The
solution is either to declare test with an explicit initial value
of null, or (better) to print out the e.getMessage() string of the
exception.
3.10 Why do I get this compiler error message?
public static void main(String[] args) {
^
Statement expected.
public static final float Conversion_Factor = 39.37;
^
Type expected.
A. A. Argument declarations and variable declarations inside
methods are never given the "public", or "static" keywords. They
are not public or static because they are local to a method. (They
used not to be allowed the "final" keyword either, but there was
not good reason for that restriction and it was dropped in JDK
1.1). Move your public or static declarations outside the method.
They are usually put at the beginning of the class.
3.11 Why do I get this compiler error message?
MyApplet.java:11: No constructor matching MyCheckbox(myApplet)
found in class MyCheckbox.
bp1 = new MyCheckbox(this);
^
1 error
A. The first thing to check is whether you gave a return value to
the constructor, like this:
public void MyCheckbox( Container parent )
If you did, the compiler will think it is an ordinary method, not
a constructor. This is a very common mistake, and quite hard to
spot.
3.12 Why do I get the compiler error message
T.java:96: Can't access protected method clone in class java.lang.Object.
OtherT is not a subclass of the current class.
A. The method clone() is protected. It is protected because
cloning is an operation which the object might want to restrict
access to. If Object.clone() was declared as public, the object
could never decide to make it more restrictive later. By declaring
it protected, the object has the choice of making it *less*
restrictive.
This means that a method can clone its own objects, but a method
cannot clone objects of another class, unless you do something
like:
class SomeObject implements Cloneable {
public Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException {
return super.clone();
}
}
[i.e. override clone to make it public, and call the superclass
clone].
class Foo {
Bar bar;
Foo (Bar b) {
try {bar = (Bar) b.clone();}
catch (Exception e) {}
}
...
class Bar implements Cloneable {
public Object clone() throws java.lang.CloneNotSupportedException{
return super.clone();
}
}
3.13 How do I transform a char into the corresponding int value, that
represents the code value of the char?
A. char c = 'A';
int i = c;
Going the other way is just
c = (char) i;
This question crops up so frequently because the BASIC language
uses functions to map characters into ints, ASC( 'A' ) => 65
causing BASIC programmers to seek the corresponding Java
functions. Pascal and Ada have similar functions, and no doubt
other languages too.
3.14 If I extend a class with a subclass, are the constructors
inherited?
A. "Constructor declarations are not members. They are never
inherited and therefore are not subject to hiding or overriding."
The default constructor is not inherited, but provided (see
Section 8.6.7, JLS).
If you don't give your child class any constructors, a default
no-arg constructor that invokes the superclass' constructor is
provided for you. If the superclass doesn't have a no-arg
constructor, see 3.7
3.15 How do I allocate a multidimensional array?
A. There are several ways. If you want a rectangular array, you
can allocate the space for the array all at once. The following
creates a 4x5 array:
int arr[][] = new int[4][5];
If you want each row to have a different number of columns, you
can use the fact that a two-dimensional array is actually an array
of arrays. The following code allocates a triangular array:
int arr[][] = new int[4][]; // allocate the four row arrays
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) // initialize each of the four rows
arr[i] = new int[i + 1]; // row i has i + 1 columns
Note that if you allocate an array of any kind of object (as
opposed to primitive type), all the references will be null by
default. These null references can result in NullPointerExceptions
if you try to dereference them.
In other words, after doing:
int arr[] = new int[4];
you can say "if (arr[2] == 0)"
But after doing
Integer Iarr[] = new Integer[4];
you must fill in the object reference before using it, with e.g.
Iarr[2] = myInt;
or
Iarr[2] = new Int(27);
before you can say "if (Iarr[2].equals(myInt))"
3.16 Does it make a difference to the class file in any way, if I
import a package, versus use the full name, i.e.
import java.rmi.server.*;
RemoteObject ro;
versus:
java.rmi.server.RemoteObject ro;
A. No, it makes no difference to the class files. Import is just a
shorthand for quoting the full name package and class name (as in
the examples in the question). Importing a class does not cause
the class to be loaded at run time. There is no run time penalty
for using the * form of import. The class file will contain the
name of the packages it uses, and the loader will look for those
classes as needed at runtime.
The different forms of import may or may not make a difference to
compile time. Such a difference is likely to be negligible, and
should not be a factor in which form of import you use.
Some people say that stating which classes you are importing can
help program readability. In a program with many * import
statements, it may take a programmer time to find which package an
obscure class is imported from. If you explicitly list each class
you import at the top of the
program, you document which package each class you use comes from.
These people suggest that you use
import java.rmi.server.RemoteObject;
in preference to:
import java.rmi.server.*;
Other people say that it is clearer still to use the full package
and class name, at the point where you use classes in other
packages. These people suggest that you use:
java.rmi.server.RemoteObject ro;
But that gets a little lengthy when you instantiate:
java.rmi.server.RemoteObject ro = new java.rmi.server.RemoteObject();
You always have the option of stating the full package and class
name, whether you use import or not.
Another good reason not to use the * form is when you are
importing two packages that have classes of the same name and you
want to use only one of those classes. E.g.
import com.sun.*;
import com.ms.*;
where there is a class called SerialPort in both those packages.
If you use the * form of import, you import both of the SerialPort
classes and then must fully qualify the class each time you use
it, to say which of the two you mean.
In Java 1.0, if you import a class that has the same name as a
class defined in that source file, you will get an error that the
class names clash. In Java 1.1, the local class will be used when
the package name is not given; use the package name of the
imported class to use it.
The best advice is to write the program so that it is as readable
as possible. Where you have a group of well known classes, as in
java.awt, there is no reason not to use "import java.awt.*;"
3.17 What are "class literals"?
A. A feature introduced in JDK 1.1. They are literals of type
"Class" that hold a value representing any class. There is even a
value to represent "void", like this:
Class myCl1 = Character.class;
Class myCl2 = Void.class;
Class myCl3 = Object.class;
You might use it like this:
Class cl = thing.getClass();
if (cl.equals(myCl1))
System.out.println("It's a Character class");
A class literal
Component.class
is the equivalent of
Class.forName("java.awt.Component")
The second can throw an exception, but the first cannot. If you
don't know the name of the class when you write the code, you
cannot use the first form.
3.18 How do I copy the contents of an array (with primitive type
contents) to another array?
A. Use the method java.lang.System.arraycopy(Object src, int
src_position, Object dst, int dst_position, int length);
Note that there is no corresponding method to clear an array to
0.0, 0, null, false, '\u0000' etc (except for allocating a new
array, which will have the default initializations). This has lead
several people to suggest the old COBOL trick of "initialize by
rollup". In initialize by roll-up, the programmer sets the first
element of the array to the desired value, and then moves elements
array[0 to n-1] to array[1 to n]. Under some old IBM COBOL
compilers, code was generated to move element 0 to 1, then 1 to 2,
and so on, "rolling up" the desired value through the array. It
was always a terrible idea, as it went outside the boundaries of
defined behavior in COBOL, and was subject to being broken in any
compiler release.
In any event, intialization by roll-up is defined not to work in
Java. If the src and dst arguments refer to the same array object,
then the copying is performed as if the components at positions
srcOffset through srcOffset+length-1 were first copied to a
temporary array with length components and then the contents of
the temporary array were copied into positions dstOffset through
dstOffset+length-1 of the argument array.
If you simply want to clear the same array to the same value many
times, create two arrays. Fill one with the reset value, then use
System.arraycopy to copy it into the work array each time you need
to clear the work array.
3.19 What is a fast way to set all elements of an array to a given
value without duplicating the (possibly large) array?
A. Using a loop that does it one by one is probably 20 to 40 times
slower than good-old memset() in C.
A fast way on many VM's is to set the first byte of the array,
then use System.arraycopy repeatedly to fill the next byte, the
next two bytes, the next four bytes, the next eight bytes, etc.
(Note these are not overlapping slices, so the issue raised in
Q3.18 does not
arise).
public static void bytefill(byte[] array, byte value) {
int len = array.length;
if (len > 0)
array[0] = value;
for (int i = 1; i < len; i += i)
System.arraycopy( array, 0, array, i,
((len - i) < i) ? (len - i) : i);
}
This is faster on Sun's VM than a simple loop, and probably faster
even under JITCs because it only performs log2(array.length)
bounds-checks at most. This is a clever code idiom applying the
binary chop algorithm to arrays whose size is not a power of 2.
3.20 Is there some declaration that I can use to make "acos", "cos",
"sin", etc. (from java.lang.Math) recognizable in my own class, so I
don't have to prefix "Math." to them?
A. No. There is no good alternative. There are several bad
alternatives:
You could wrap the functions in your own class.
double sin(double x) { return Math.sin(x); } // etc. for each function
If your class does not extend another class, you could make
it extend Math, to bring the namespace in, but this is very
poor OOP style.
If the Math class provided a public constructor -- which it
does not -- you could instantiate a local copy of Math with a
shorter name, e.g. "M".
If java.lang.Math were not final and your class did not
extend another class, you could have your class extend Math,
to bring the namespace in. However, the final prevents this
and it is very poor OOP style to use inheritance to obtain a
trivial name abbreviation (rather than to express a type
hierarchy).
The import stament only imports packages, subpackages, and
classes. Members of classes are not imported, so
import java.lang.Math.*;
doesn't work.
3.21 Why does b >>>= 1 give me the same result as b >>= 1?
A. First of all, note that ">>" is a "signed" or "arithmetic"
shift, namely, it replicates the sign bit on the left as it
shifts.
The ">>>" operator is an "unsigned" or "logical" shift; it does a
shift right and zero fill. However, there are a couple of places
where ">>>" looks like it does a signed shift!
The issue occurs when you have a non-canonical type, byte, or
short, with a negative value, e.g.
byte b = -15; // 0xF1
b = (byte) b >>> 4; // why isn't b 0x0f ?
The initial expectation is that an unsigned shift right of 0xF1
would successively be (in binary) 0111_1000 then 0011_1100 then
0001_1110 then 0000_1111
But that doesn't happen. The rules of arithmetic in Java say that
all operands are converted at least to int before the operation
(and possibly to a more capacious type). That means our byte is
promoted to an int, so instead of shifting 0xf1, we are shifting
0xfffffff1. If you shift right unsigned 4 places, you get
0x0fffffff. When you cast that to a byte it becomes 0xff, or -1.
The bottom line is that the final result is the same as if you'd
performed the signed shift because the unsigned shift applied to
the intermediate int, not to the original byte. This anomaly means
that ">>>" is useless for negative bytes and shorts. It is
probably safer and clearer not to use it at all, but to mask and
shift like this:
// not recommended
byte b = -15;
b = (byte) (b>>>4);
System.out.println("b= "+Integer.toHexString(b) );
// recommended
b= -15;
b = (byte) ( (b & 0xFF) >> 4 );
System.out.println("b= "+Integer.toHexString(b) );
3.22 How do I compare two Strings together?
if (s1 == s2)
is giving me funny results.
A. The comparison using "==" on objects, like Strings, is asking
the question "do these two objects have the same reference?". That
is, do they have the same address, and hence are the same object?
What you really want to do is ask "do these two Strings have the
same *contents*?"
You do that with any of (and there are others too)
if (s1.equals(s2) )
or if (s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s2) )
or if (s1.startsWith(s2) )
or if (s1.endsWith(s2) )
or if (s1.regionMatches(s1_offset, s2, s2_offset, length) )
or if (s1.compareTo(s2) < 0)
Note that you can do this with literals:
if ("apple".equals(s2) ) ...
If you compare these the other way round, like this:
if ( s2.equals("apple") ) ...
and s2 is null, you will get a null pointer exception. Be alert to
this.
-----------------
4. AWT and Related Topics
4.0 AWT
4.0.1 Why do I get this when using JDK 1.1 under X Windows?
java.lang.NullPointerException
at sun.awt.motif.MFramePeer.<init>(MFramePeer.java:59)
at sun.awt.motif.MToolkit.createFrame(MToolkit.java:153)
at java.awt.Frame.addNotify(Frame.java)
at java.awt.Window.pack(Window.java)
A. There's a missing font on your system. Move font.properties
from the "lib" subdirectory aside to font.properties.bak Then it
won't look for the font and fail to find it.
The problem occurs because the Motif AWT libraries use the Font
"plain Dialog 12 point" as a fall-back default font.
Unfortunately, when using a remote X server sometimes this font
isn't
available.
On an X-terminal, the diagnostic may be slightly different, a segv
% appletviewer HelloWorldApplet.html
SIGSEGV 11* segmentation violation
si_signo [11]: SIGSEGV 11* segmentation violation
si_errno [0]: Error 0
si_code [1]: SEGV_ACCERR [addr: 0x14]
To determine which fonts you have, issue a command such as
xlsfonts > ~/fonts.txt
Then pick through the long list of fonts to determine which ones
you want to use. The xfd program will let you look at a font:
xfd -fn "your font name here" &
4.0.2 Why is GridBagLayout so hard to use?
A. GridBagLayout was contributed to Javasoft by a programmer who
wanted to support the Java effort. It was intended as a proof that
the AWT offered enough features for programmers to write their own
layout managers. It wasn't designed with human factors and ease of
use in mind. If it bothers you (it bothers me) then just don't use
it. Create your GUI on several panels and use the other layout
managers as appropriate to get the exact effect you want. The
official story from the project leader of the AWT project, as
explained to the Mountain View Java Users' Group on Dec 4 1996,
is:
"The case has been made and is now accepted that
GridBagLayout is too hard to use for what it offers. GBL will
continue to be supported, and something better and simpler
will eventually be provided as well. This "better GBL" can be
used instead of GBL."
Bottom line: nobody has to waste any effort on GBL, there are
better alternatives available now, and it will be replaced by the
SwingSet "SpringLayout" Springs & Struts style layout manager to
be introduced as part of the Java Foundation Classes with JDK 1.2.
4.0.3 How do you change the font type and size of text in a TextArea?
A. myTextArea.setFont(new Font("NAME", <STYLE>, <SIZE>));
where:
NAME is the name of the font (eg Dialog or TimesRoman).
<STYLE> is Font.PLAIN, Font.ITALIC, Font.BOLD or any
additive combination (e.g. Font.ITALIC+Font.BOLD).
<SIZE> is the size of the font, e.g. 12. e.g. new
Font("TimesRoman", Font.PLAIN, 18);
4.0.4 Can you have different fonts for individual words in a TextArea ?
A. No. If you're trying to write a word processor, use the Canvas
class to render on.
4.0.5 How much text can be put in a TextArea?
A. TextArea just uses the corresponding widget of the underlying
window system. It will be bounded by the limit imposed in the
native window system. In Windows95 TextAreas can hold about
28Kbytes. The native widget allows 32Kb, but there is some
overhead which reduces the amount available to the programmer.
4.0.6 MyClass works fine except when I try to set a particular font. I
just can't seem to get it to work in Win95, but I can get it to work on
a MacOS and Unix.
A. You probably specified a font name that isn't available under
your Win95; this is one of those cross-platform differences that
can bite you if you over-specify for one platform, like specifying
"Arial" as a font and expecting it to work on something other than
Windows.
On both Windows 95 and Solaris 2.6, these fonts
Dialog
SansSerif
Serif
Monospaced
Helvetica
TimesRoman
Courier
DialogInput
ZapfDingbats
are revealed by this code:
import java.awt.*;
class foonly {
static public void main(String s[])
{
String n[]= new Frame().getToolkit().getFontList();
for (int i=0;i<n.length; i++)
System.out.println(n[i]);
System.exit(0);
}
}
In other words, You can get a String array of the names of
the fonts by
String[] fonts = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getFontList()
4.0.7 Is it possible to draw a polygon or a line more than 1 pixel
wide?
A. JDK 1.1.1 doesn't have support for this. The standard
workaround for drawing a thick line is to draw a filled polygon.
The standard workaround for drawing a thick polygon is to draw
several polygons.
There is a useful class at
http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/java/GraphicsUtil.html It extends the
drawxxx and fillxxx methods of java.awt.Graphics. It adds a Line
Width argument to most of the drawxxx methods, a Color argument to
most of the drawxxx and fillxxx methods, and a Font argument to
draw String and drawChars.
4.0.8 I use add(Component) to add Components to the Container. Is there
any way to explicitly set the z-order of these Components?
A. JDK 1.0 has no way to explicitly set the z-order of components.
You can try it heuristically, based on the browser you're using,
or you can use CardLayoutManager to ensure the panel you want is
at the front.
In JDK 1.1 the z-order of components ("z-order" means
"front-to-back" order, i.e. which window is in front of which) can
be controlled by using the the method add(Component comp, int
index). By default, components are added 0 to N. The method paint
of class Container paints its visible components from N to 0.
4.0.9 When I call repaint() repeatedly, half my requests get lost and
don't appear on the screen. Why is this?
A. repaint() just tells the AWT that you'd like a paint to happen.
AWT will fold several adjacent repaint requests into one, so that
only the most current paint is done. One possible workaround might
be to use a clip rectangle and only paint the different areas that
have changed.
4.0.10 What is the difference between
Component's setForeground(Color c)
and
Graphics's setColor(Color c) ?
A. First of all, these methods do the same thing: set the
foreground color to the value of the parameter. The difference
lies in where you use them. There is also a
Component.setBackground that will set the background color.
If you are in a constructor or an event handler (e.g. "click here
to turn the canvas blue") you have a Component and should use the
setForeground() method. If you are in a paint() method, that takes
a Graphics context as its argument so you will typically use
g.setColor(c).
Unlike a Component, a Graphics object doesn't have a background
color and a foreground color that you can change independently. A
Graphics object arrives in the color(s) inherited from the drawing
surface. From then on, any rendering (drawLine(), drawRect(),
fillOval(), etc.) will be
done in the setColor() color. Because they do different things,
the Component and Graphics methods have different names.
4.0.11 When I start a mouse drag inside a Component, and go outside the
Component, still dragging, the mouse events still get sent to the
Component, even though I am outside it. Is this a bug?
A. No, it is the specified behavior. The java API documentation
says:
"... Mouse drag events continue to get sent to this component
even when the mouse has left the bounds of the component. The
drag events continue until a mouse up event occurs. ..."
It is done for the convenience and ease of the application
programmer. It allows you to handle all drags from the place of
origin. If you don't want this, simply look at the coordinates of
the mouseDrag Event, and if they are outside the Component, ignore
them.
4.0.12 What's all this about subclassing Canvas and overriding paint()
? Can't I just do a getGraphics() for a component, and draw directly on
that?
A. You can do that, and it might work up to a point (or it might
not). A problem arises when the window system wants to refresh
that component e.g. because it has been partially obscured and is
now revealed. It calls paint(), and that has no knowledge of the
other g.drawing() you have done.
4.0.13 But couldn't the AWT just remember what has been drawn to a
Graphics context, and replicate that instead of calling paint()?
A. It could, but that is not how it works. In practice it is a lot
simpler to be able to look at the paint method, and see explicitly
all the things that will be done to draw that component. Bottom
line: use paint(), not g=getGraphics(); g.drawString( ...
4.0.14 How can I get the dimensions and resolution of the screen?
A. java.awt.Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getScreenSize()
java.awt.Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getScreenResolution()
Screen resolution is in dots-per-inch.
Take a look in the Toolkit class for other useful methods.
Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getColorModel().getPixelSize() gets
you the color model in terms of bits per pixel.
Math.pow(2,Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getColorModel().getPixelSize())
gets you the color model in terms of number of colors. Or use
this:
1 <<
Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getColorModel().getPixelSize()
That does a shift left to calculate the power of two.
4.0.15 How do I allow for the size of the title bar and border when I
draw a Frame?
A. Use MyFrame.getInsets(). This returns a java.awt.Insets object
which has four ints: top, left, bottom, right, giving the number
of pixels each of those margins are inset from the top. You can
use these value to adjust the Dimension object returned by
component.getSize().
4.0.16 When I run the Swing demo on Win95 I get an error "Out of
environment space"
A. That's because you don't have enough space for your DOS
environment. You can fix this with:
+ Right click your MS-DOS Prompt icon or window and choose
Properties.
+ Choose "Memory" and on "Initial Environment" choose 4096
instead of "auto".
+ Run Swing again, you'll be OK.
4.0.17 How do I resize a List? I had a List defined as
List tlist = new List(10);
but the Strings in the list were 80 characters long and only the first
15 were being shown. I was not able to resize the List to display the
contents without using the scroll bar.
A. A List cannot be resized in a constructor, so add the following
to the Applet (or wherever)
public void paint (Graphics g) {
tlist.setSize(200,200);
}
Then before showing panel/frame with the List:
tlist.resize(400,400);
4.0.18 How can my program tell when a window is resized?
A. Override the setBounds() method of Component to do what you
want. Of course, have it call super.setBounds() as well. Note that
setBounds() replaces reshape() which is deprecated.
Note the new APIs call the deprecated APIs instead of the other
way round. For example, Component.setBounds calls
Component.reshape, instead of reshape calling setBounds.
4.0.19 Why doesn't my window close when I click on the X in the title
bar?
A. Here's how to make your program do that.
JDK 1.0.2: Handle Event.WINDOW_DESTROY to do a hide() and
dispose() on the Frame.
JDK 1.1:
a) Listen for WindowEvent and do hide(); dispose(); in
windowClosing() - this ought to be the "default" behaviour.
b) enable AWTEvent.WINDOW_CLOSING and do the hide() and dispose()
in processWindowEvent().
4.0.20 How do I clear the contents of a TextArea?
A. Set it to a null String with this:
area.setText("");
4.0.21 What are those preferredSize() and minimumSize() methods in
Component?
A. Those methods allow a LayoutManager to calculate the preferred
and minimum sizes of the Components it is arranging. You can
control the values that the LayoutManager gets by creating
subclasses of the Components you are using and overriding these
methods.
4.0.22 How can I force a synchronization of the graphics state, e.g. of
a cursor change, or an animation frame to be rendered?
A. This is done by the sync() method in the toolkit. So just use:
AnyComponent.getToolkit().sync();
4.0.23 How do I plot a single pixel to the screen?
A. Use g.drawLine(x1,y1,x1,y1) to draw a line one pixel in length.
If you are drawing a very large number of individual pixels,
consider using a java.awt.MemoryImageSource object and measure
whether this offers better performance.
4.0.24 How can I tab between components?
A. In JDK 1.0, you have to read the key press, and program it
explicitly. JDK 1.1 supports tab and shift-tab (previous field)
automatically. The tab order is the order that the components were
added to the container.
4.0.25 What is the difference between "low level" and "semantic"
events?
A.It doesn't seem to be a distinction that is of use to the
programmer. Semantic events are those generated when you frob a
control (move a scrollbar, click on a button, select from a menu,
etc). Low-level events are the others (resizing a window, dragging
the mouse, striking a key, adding a Component to a Container,
etc).
Low level events: use the method enableEvents() and override
performX() for those events in the object itself.
Semantic events: Uses the method addXListener() to add objects
which implement the XListener interface in order to get XEvent
objects delivered (usually via the AWTEventMulticaster).
4.0.26 Is it possible to have a Java window float above all other
windows. for example a tool palette floats in a super-layer always
above all the regular document windows on which you use the palette's
tools?
A. On MS Windows, a Window object floats above all other windows,
unlike a Frame, which is layered in with ordinary windows. This
behavior yields a "floating" effect. Whether a Window object is
really supposed to float is another question entirely.
On Mac, a Window object is either layered in with other windows,
just like a Frame is, or else it is entirely modal -- depending on
which VM you use. In Java -- there appears to be no easy way to
get floating behavior. If anyone knows otherwise, please send in
your comments.
4.0.27 How do I center a dialog box?
A. You cannot currently get the applet's absolute screen
coordinates. Its location (0,0) is relative to the browser, not
the screen itself. But you can center something that it pops up or
displays centered on the screen with code like this:
Dimension screen = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getScreenSize();
my_window.move(
( screen.width - window.size().width ) / 2,
( screen.height - window.size().height ) / 2 );
my_window.show().
In a related fashion, you can center something on its parent like
this. Note the intelligent use of APIs like translate() to do the
work for you.
void centre(Component parent) {
pack();
Point p = parent.getLocation();
Dimension d = parent.getSize();
Dimension s = getSize();
p.translate((d.width - s.width) / 2, (d.height - s.height) / 2);
setLocation(p);
}
4.0.28 How do I get back to a normal echo after I have used
TextField.setEchoChar('*');
A. TextField.setEchoChar('\0') works on most Windows based
browsers... but for most other platforms (ie: Netscape under
UNIX), it just locks up the textfield.
There is only one good solution, and that is to make two
TextFields on top of each other, one normal, and one with
.setEchoChar('*'), and switch between them.
4.1 APPLETS
4.1.1 What is the difference between an application, and applet and a
servlet?
A. An application is a standalone program. An applet is a
downloadable program that runs in a web-browser. Typically an
applet has restricted access to the client system for reasons of
security.
A Servlet is an application, but (like an applet) requires a
context in which to run, namely web-server software. Servlets are
used like CGI, but allow the server end to be written in Java as
well as the client.
The Web Server starts up a servlet when the URL is referenced, and
now your applets have something that they can talk to (via
sockets) on the server that can write files, open connections to
other servers, or whatever.
Don't confuse Sun's JWS "Java Web Server" with JWS "Java
Workshop". Java Web Server supports servlets as does the
lightweight and free server at Acme.com:
http://www.acme.com/java/software/Acme.Serve.Serve.html
4.1.2 My applet works on my machine, but fails when I put it on our web
server. Why?
A. It could be one of several reasons, and unfortunately the
messages that you get in this situation aren't much help. In
general, you can assume that either your applet's class files are
corrupted somehow, or the web server can't find one or more of
them when the browser needs them.
Be careful of the following things:
+ Make sure you transfer the class files in binary mode, rather
than text or ASCII mode.
+ Make sure you transfer *all* of the class files which are a
part of your applet. Sometimes people are surprised by how
many there are. There will be a class file for every class
and interface you define, even if you define more than one in
a single source file. If you use the Java 1.1 "inner classes"
feature, there will be class files for each inner class as
well.
+ Make sure you maintain the appropriate case distinctions in
your filenames. If a class is called StUdLy, it must be found
in a file called StUdLy.class.
+ Make sure you maintain the directory structure that matches
your package structure. If you declare a class in package
COM.foo.util, the class file needs to be in directory
COM/foo/util under the applet's codebase directory. Again,
case distinctions are important for package/directory names,
just as they are for class/file names.
+ Make sure that the web server process will have read access
to the class files, and search access to the directories that
the files are in. For example, if the web server runs on a
Unix machine, use the command "chmod o+r filename" for the
files, and "chmod o+x dirname" for the directories.
4.1.3 How do I use an image as the background to my applet? How do I
set the background color of my applet the same as the browser?
A. You can simply do a g.drawImage(yourImage, x,y, this) in the
paint() routine of your applet. If the image isn't big enough to
fill the entire background, tile it or scale it There is some code
to tile at:
http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Vista/1337/
(under AWT) Alternatively, the AWT can scale your background image
to the size of
the applet. The result quality will depend on the kind of image.
Inside an applet class, you can use:
drawImage(img, 0, 0, size().width, size().height, this);
You can set the background color to match the background color of
the browser by passing the value in as a parameter, like this:
In the HTML applet tag:
param name=BrowserColor value=F1F1F1
(value should be the same hex as the HTML COLOR value).
In the Applet init() method:
String colparam = getParameter("BrowserColor");
int col = Integer.valueOf(colparam,16).intValue();
setBackground( new Color(col) );
An applet cannot override the size imposed by the HTML. If you
make the applet larger, the browser will still clip to the
origional size. If you need more room, open up a new Frame, Window
or Dialog to show your output.
4.1.4 how do you make the applet's background transparent?
A. there is no way to give an applet a transparent background that
lets the web browser background show through. You can simulate it
by giving the applet a background that matches the underlying
browser background. It doesn't produce satisfactory results with a
patterned background because of problems aligning the edges.
Lightweight components (new in JDK 1.1) have a transparent
background.
4.1.5 How do you do file I/O from an applet?
A. See answer to question 6.8.
4.1.6 How do you get a MenuBar/Menu in an applet?
A. In your applet's init() method, create a Frame instance and
then attach the Menus, Menubar etc to that frame. You cannot
attach the Menu or a Menubar to an applet directly.
Or get the parent Frame like this:
Container parent = getParent();
while (! (parent instanceof Frame) )
parent = parent.getParent();
Frame theFrame = (Frame) parent;
This second suggestion probably won't work on Macs (where would
the menubar go?) or in some browsers. In JDK 1.1, just use a popup
menu, which isn't attached to a Frame.
4.1.7 Can I get rid of the message "Warning:Applet Window" along the
bottom of my popup windows in my Applet?
A. This is a security feature that prevents the applet programmer
from popping up a window that looks like it came from the native
OS and asking for passwords or credit card info (etc). Users must
always be aware of when they are talking to an unsigned applet.
You can get rid of it by signing the applet, if the user accepts
signed applets from you.
In Netscape (only), using the Capabilities API to make the call
PrivilegeManager.enablePrivilege("UniversalTopLevelWindow");
before creation of the Frame eliminates the message, if the
security manager passes it.
4.1.8 When I subclass Applet, why should I put setup code in the init()
method? Why not just a constructor for my class?
A. The browser invokes your constructor, then setStub, then
init(). Hence when your constructor is invoked, the AppletStub
(and through it the AppletContext) is not yet available. Although
in principle you can do things in the constructor that don't rely
(even indirectly) on the AppletStub or AppletContext, it is less
error-prone to simply defer all setup to the init method. That way
you know that anything that needs the stub/context will have it
available.
4.1.9 How do I pull a non-class file, such as a .gif, out of a jar
file?
A. In your class, you should be able to do something like this:
String imageFileName = "foo.jpg"
URL imageURL = getClass().getResource(imageFileName);
Toolkit tk = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit();
Image img = null;
try {
img = tk.createImage((java.awt.image.ImageProducer)
imageURL.getContent());
}
catch (java.io.IOException ex) {
System.out.println(ex);
}
(Like anything involving Jar files, this is from JDK 1.1 on).
4.1.10 I want to know about {applets,applications} but the lousy book I
got just talks about {applications,applets}. What can I do?
A. The truth is that 95% of the material is the same, whichever
your book chooses to focus on. Some people write their apps to
work completely in a Panel, then depending on whether they're
running stand-alone or in a browser the Panel is either added to a
Frame or an Applet. The trick is that you need to subclass the
application's Frame in order to handle the WINDOW_CLOSING
(previously WINDOW_DESTROY) event yourself. If you fail to do
this, when running as an application, the window won't close.
In this scenario the following code will tell you which
environment you're running in:
public boolean isRunningInBrowser() {
Component p = getParent();
while(p != null && !(p instanceof Frame)) {
p = p.getParent();
}
return (p == null);
}
4.1.11 How do I print a page with an applet?
A. iBrowsers are starting to introduce support for this. Until
they all have it, your best bet is to print a screendump. Using
the browser to print the page may leave a blank where the applet
is. Putting print support in the applet will print the applet
only, not the rest of the browser page.
4.1.12 How can I position my dialogs centered (not top left)?
A. Use some code like this:
void centre(Component parent) {
pack();
Point p = parent.getLocation();
Dimension d = parent.getSize();
Dimension s = getSize();
p.translate((d.width - s.width) / 2, (d.height -
s.height) / 2);
setLocation(p);
}
4.1.13 How can I get two applets on the same page to communicate with
each other? centered
A.(Easy way) Make them into one applet with two GUIs. (Harder) Use
the static members of a common class to communicate information
between the applets. This is something of a hack as it relies on
class-loading behavior that may change in future. Try to avoid the
need for applets to talk to each other. Also check the URL
http://java.sun.com:81/products/hotjava/1.1/applet_environment.html
which explains how it can be done in HotJava 1.1. Recommendation:
stay far away from code which is browser-specific.
4.2 BROWSERS
4.2.1 When will my favorite browser support Java 1.1?
A: Netscape Communicator 4.0 with the feature patch supports most
new features of Java 1.1, and Netscape has committed to the rest.
Communicator is scheduled to fully support Java 1.1 in late 1997.
URL:
http://developer.netscape.com/support/faqs/champions/java.html#21
Sun's HotJava browser fully supports the JDK 1.1 features.
Internet Explorer 4.0, released in September 1997, does not fully
support Java 1.1, omitting entirely RMI, JNI, signed JARs, and
making around 50 non-standard modifications to the java.awt.* and
other package. After weeks of negotiations, Sun has brought a
breach of contract lawsuit against Microsoft because of the
unauthorized changes. Programmers who support Java are recommended
not to use Internet Explorer until Microsoft brings it back into
compliance with the Java standard.
Microsoft is trying to slow down the drive to Java, by spreading
fear, uncertainty, doubt, and trying to fragment the Java
environment. People say that sooner or later Microsoft will be
forced to support portable Java, not try to undermine it. Until
that day, developers should avoid Microsoft's near-Java knock-off
when they choose their development tools.
4.2.2 Is it possible to set and retrieve cookies from Java, in a manner
that is compatible with all browsers supporting cookies?
A. Short answer: no.
Longer answer: probably no.
Ultimate answer:
A cookie is a morsel of tasty data that a server sends back to the
client, and can retrieve on demand. It allows the server to retain
some state information for each of its clients. The information is
typically something like "what pages has the user seen?" or "is
this a privileged user?".
The DevEdge site on Netscape's home page has a javascript-java
example on getting cookies. It's quite involved. Stick to just
Java if you can.
4.2.3 I am developing an applet and testing it in Netscape Navigator. I
find that after I recompile, I press reload, clear the caches, retype
the URL of the HTML wrapper, and I still have the old version. Why is
this?
A. It is because Netscape has completely failed to improve the
defective code that does this monstrously wrong thing. It has been
like this for many successive releases.
Flushing the network cache will make no difference; that isn't
where the caching is taking place. Although applets are sometimes
"pruned" and their ClassLoaders garbage-collected, this doesn't
happen predictably, so restarting Netscape is the only reliable
work-around at the moment.
A related question is "how do I make the browser reload from a
URLConnection instead of just getting the content from the local
cache?" The answer is to use
java.net.URLConnection.setUseCaches(false)
Browsers seem to vary in their conformance to this programmatic
request. Netscape caching varies depending on whether a proxy
server is in use, and which thread in the applet made the get
request.
4.2.4 So, why can't Netscape reload the applet when you press the
Reload button?
A. For the applet to be reloaded, the new version would have to be
loaded in a different ClassLoader. Navigator/Communicator's policy
for assigning ClassLoaders to applets doesn't take into account
whether a reload has been done (although there is no technical
reason why it couldn't).
Some versions of Netscape reload the Applet if you hold down
<Shift> while you click on reload. Until they fix it, use the
appletviewer to test applets. And send them mail -- developers can
only fix the bugs they know about.
4.2.5 Should I use Microsoft CAB files or Java JAR files?
A. The question contains its own answer.
CAB format is a Microsoft-only format. So do not use it as it
destroys software portability.
JAR format is the Java standard format, based on PKZIP format
including data compression. JARs were introduced with JDK 1.1
See http://www.ibm.com/java/community/viewarchive4.html for more
information.
You should use the Java standard format JAR (Java Archive) files,
not a vendor-specific format. JAR files are not just a Java
standard, they are in industry-standard PKZIP format. One reader
comments that both formats can be used with this tag:
<APPLET NAME=myapplet
ARCHIVE="myzip.zip"
CODE="com/nnnnn/nnnn/cccccccc.class"
WIDTH=n
HEIGHT=n>
<PARAM NAME="cabbase" VALUE="mycab.cab">
</APPLET>
IE3 does not support JAR
IE4 supports compressed and uncompressed JAR, but not signed JAR
IE3 and IE4 both support CAB (signed & unsigned)
-----------------
5. CORE LIBRARIES
5.1 I can't seem to change the value of an Integer object once created.
A. Correct. Integer (Float, Double, etc) are intended as an object
wrapper for a specific value of a number, not as a general purpose
way of shipping a primitive variable around as an Object. If you
need
that it's easy enough to create: class General { public int i; }
5.2 How do I print from a Java program?
A. Use the Toolkit.getPrintJob() method
Component c = this.getParent();
while (c!=null && !(c instanceof Frame))
c=c.getParent();
PrintJob pj = getToolkit().getPrintJob((Frame) c, "test", null);
Graphics pg = pj.getGraphics();
printAll(pg);
pg.dispose();
pj.end();
This feature was introduced with JDK 1.1. A common place to put
this is in the code that handles a button press. Printing from an
untrusted applet is subject to a check from the SecurityManager.
To print in JDK 1.0.2, some people have suggested using Jentec's
JENI. (The Java Enterprise Network Interface). JENI is a set of
classes that provides applets with file, print, email, and
directory services to lots of different protocols and locally
without the applet having to change or even be aware which is
being used.
JENI is free and available at http://www.jentec.com. For an
example of how to print, see
http://www.jentec.com/live/jeni/PrintingAFile.html. To save a
file, see
http://www.jentec.com/live/jeni/CreatingAFile.html.
5.3 What are the properties that can be used in a PrintJob?
A. The properties are
awt.print.destination - can be "printer" or "file"
awt.print.printer - print command
awt.print.fileName - name of the file to print
awt.print.numCopies - obvious
awt.print.options - options to pass to the print command
awt.print.orientation - can be "portrait" or "landscape"
awt.print.paperSize - can be "letter","legal","executive" or
"a4"
The defaults are destination=printer, orientation=portrait,
paperSize=letter, and numCopies=1
You can search for info like this by joining the Java
Developer Connection (it's free)
http://developer.javasoft.com/developer/index.html
Then do a search for "PrintJob".
5.4 Is there any package in Java to handle HTML?
A. See the answer to Question 8.14
5.5 Why don't Dialogs work the way I want them to?
A. Modal dialogs (dialog windows that stay up until you click on
them) are buggy in many browsers and in the 1.0.2 JDK. One bug is
that the dialog is not necessarily put on top when it is
displayed. Most of the modal dialog bugs are fixed in JDK 1.1.
5.6 Where can I find information about the sun.* classes in the JDK?
A. You're not supposed to. Those classes are only to support
functions in the java.* hierarchy. They are not part of the API,
and won't be present in Java systems from non-Sun vendors. Some
people have reverse engineered the code and published an API for
these classes but you use it at your own risk, and it may change
without warning.
Worst of all, those programs will not have the portability of true
Java but will only run on Sun JDKs. For the same reason you
shouldn't use classes outside the java.* packages when using JDKs
from other vendors.
If you still insist on going ahead, check these URLs:
http://java.sun.com/products/api-overview/index.html
http://www.parmly.luc.edu/javaudio/
http://www.users.interport.net/~mash/javamidi.html
5.7 How do you read environment variables from with a Java program?
A. Environment variables are not used in Java, as they are not platform
portable. The Mac doesn't have environment variables for example. Use
properties instead. Additionally, on some systems you can set a
property from the command invocation line like this:
java -Dfoo=$foo MyClass (Unix)
or
java -Dfoo=%foo% MyClass (MS-DOS)
This sets the "foo" property to the value of the environment variable
foo. Make sure you do not leave any spaces after the -D or around the =
sign. Inside the program you get the value with:
String env = System.getProperty("foo");
More simply, just put the environment variable on the commandline
and read it as arg[0]
java MyClass %FOO% ; Win32
java MyClass $FOO ; Unix
5.8 How do you use the Date class to display the current time in my
timezone? Date.toString() always uses PST. [jdk 1.1] (Pacific Standard
Time -- the zone covering California where JavaSoft is).
A. To make things easier for debugging Sun has decided that the
toString() method should always use one format, if you want a
different format you should use the new internationalization
routines.
As a Date is stored internally in GMT the obvious choice for a
standard format is... PST time? Taligent (who wrote this junk) is
in the PST zone. As an example of how the new method should work
jdk1.1/src/java/util/Date.java contains the method:
DateFormat formatter = new SimpleDateFormat (
"d MMM yyyy HH:mm:ss 'GMT'", Locale.US);
formatter.setTimeZone(TimeZone.getTimeZone("GMT"));
or even:
formatter.setTimeZone(TimeZone.getDefault());
It should be reasonably straight forward to adapt this code for
your preferred format (e.g. change string to "hh:mm" or other) and
timezone, e.g. change "GMT" to "ECT", "JST" or other timezone.
Don't forget this code too, to prevent GMT being interpreted as
GMT+1:00 hour.
// + 1 is to work around bug in GregorianCalendar
// XXX - need FIX
// should probably be formatter.format( this );
// or formatter.format(new Date());
return formatter.format( new Date(getTime() + 1) );
5.9 How are dates represented in Java?
A. java.util.Date stores dates as long integers representing the
number of milliseconds since 00:00:00 UTC Jan 1, 1970 (the birth
of Unix, a date known as the "Epoch"). This is sufficient to
represent dates from roughly 146,026,873 B.C. to 146,030,814 A.D.
Dates earlier than the Epoch are represented as negative numbers,
counting away from 1/1/1970.
In JDK 1.1, Date was augmented by Calendar. Things didn't get any
better. Instead of being ill-conceived and simple, it is now
ill-conceived and complicated. The code was all licensed from
Taligent. It didn't really improve matters. Dates are the lemon of
Java, as Roedy Green truly notes.
5.10 That may be, but how do I extract day, month, year from a Date?
A. In JDK 1.1, Date represents an instant in time. Calendar
translates between an instant in time, and individual fields like
year, month, day, etc
So get your Date -- the current Date can be had by
Date now = new Date();
Then construct a Calendar to do the translation:
Calendar mycal = Calendar.getInstance();
mycal.setTime(now);
// Now read the Calendar's fields using get().
System.out.println("Year = " + mycal.get(Calendar.YEAR));
We hope all this junk will be fixed once and for all in a future
release.
The Calendar, DateFormat, and even TimeZone classes will give you
the timezone of your system (wherever you are). The default time
zone for SimpleDateFormats is PST (i.e. California).
5.11 What kind of different date formats are allowed for the Date
constructor with the string parameter.
A. The Language Specification (which also covers the java.lang,
java.util, and java.io packages) is the best reference for
answering questions like this. It has much more detail than the
API Documentation has, and it is available as a book or online at
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/html/javautil.doc.html
The Date(String) constructor is deprecated in Java 1.1, by the
way.
5.12 How do I get Java talking to a Microsoft Access database?
A. Use the JDBC-ODBC bridge. It is not especially challenging to
set up, but it does require painstaking attention to detail. There
is a step-by-step example in the van der Linden text "Just Java
2nd Ed." mentioned in the sponsorship section of this document.
Note that the Microsoft version of the Java kit does not support
JDBC-ODBC access because it uses a non-standard native code
interface. Also check the JDBC FAQ listed at the end of this
document.
5.13 I can't seem to change the current working directory.
A. Correct. This missing functionality is an oversight that we
hope will be corrected in future. Changing the user.dir property
merely changes the text property, not the underlying reality that
it is supposed to reflect.
5.14 How do I create a Vector of ints?
A. ints are primitive types and hence can't be stored by the
Vector class which stores objects. You'll need to wrap the ints.
Try this:
int i =7;
Vector holdsInts = new Vector(5,1);
holdsInts.addElement(new Integer(i));
int j = ((Integer)holdsInts.elementAt(0)).intValue();
5.15 I have several worker threads. I want my main thread to wait for
any of them to complete, and take action as soon as any of them
completes. I don't know which will complete soonest, so I can't just
call Thread.join on that one. How do I do it?
A. You need to use the wait/notify mechanism to allow any of the
worker threads to wake up your main thread when the worker has
completed.
5.16 How do I get random numbers?
A. If you just need a quick random double between 0.0 and just
less than 1.0
double myrandom = Math.random(); // [0,1)
The notation "[0,1)" is common math notation for "zero to .9999999
etc" The Sun documents say this returns 0.0 to 1.0, but inspection
of the source shows they are wrong. However, due to the inherent
inaccuracies of floating point arithmetic, multiplying N by
0.999999 etc can result in an answer of N, not N * .999999 . So
watch out when N is big.
Where things get even trickier is in the case where you want an
int within a certain range, say 1 to 6 to simulate the throw of a
die or 1 to 52 to represent a playing card. Class Random has a
nextInt method that will return any integer:
Random r = new Random();
int i = r.nextInt();
However, that has an (almost) 50% chance of being negative, and it
doesn't come from the right range. So you just take the abs()
value and then mod it into the right range:
int dice_throw = 1 + Math.abs(i) % 6;
Except, the abs() method fails gracefully in the presence of the
Integer.MIN_VALUE (it returns the same, negative, result!). So it
is better to AND to get the non-negative value: In general, to get
a random int between high and low limits (incl.):
Random r = new Random();
int j = (Integer.MAX_VALUE & r.nextInt()) % (high-low+1) + low;
The sentence states "(almost) 50% chance" because there is one
more value in the negative integers than in the positive integers
in two's complement arithmetic as used by Java. For most purposes,
the bias introduced will be insignificant.
A worse problem is that with the algorithm used, the low order
bits are significantly less random than the higher order bits. And
the low order bits are precisely the ones you get when you do the
remainder operation.
5.17 What does "deprecated" mean? I got this in a compiler error
message.
A. The compiler will flag a now-obsolete API as "deprecated". The
word means "officially disapproved of". Compile again with the
"-deprecation" option to see what is deprecated. In almost all
cases, the old API has been replaced by a new one. Update your
code to use the new one.
An example of using a deprecated API is calling component.size().
That has been replaced by component.getSize().
5.18 Where/why should I use the Enumeration interface?
A. It's a very convenient way to step through some of the library
data structures, such as HashTable, Vector, and ZipFile. It is
thread safe. If you're looking at an element in one thread while
another thread is trying to delete it, it won't half vanish.
Here's how you might look at every file in ZIP file:
ZipFile z = new ZipFile("foo.zip");
for (Enumeration e=z.entries(); e.hasMoreElements(); ) {
ZipEntry ze = (ZipEntry)e.nextElement();
System.out.println("got " + ze.getName() );
}
You should look for opportunities in your own data structures to
implement Enumeration, anywhere where the structure has repeated
elements.
5.19 Which version of WinZip is compatible with java.util.zip?
A. You need WinZip version 6.2 or later. Version 6.1 or earlier is
not good enough. WinZip can be downloaded from
http://www.winzip.com/download.cgi. The pkzip software works fine.
-------------------
6. I/O
6.1 How do I read a String/int/boolean/etc from the keyboard?
A. The easiest way is to pick up the source for the 100% pure Java
class EasyIn from http://www.best.com/~pvdl (same place as this
FAQ) Compile it with your code and use it like this:
EasyIn easy = new EasyIn();
int i = easy.readInt(); // gets an int from System.in
boolean b = easy.readBoolean(); // gets a boolean from System.in
double d = easy.readDouble(); // gets a double from System.in
... etc.
EasyIn is free, comes with source, and you can do what you like
with it, including improve it, and send me back the results.
If, instead, you want to "roll your own" code (why?!) In JDK 1.0.2
java.io.DataInputStream in = new java.io.DataInputStream(System.in);
String s = in.readLine();
One way in JDK 1.1
java.io.BufferedReader in =
new java.io.BufferedReader( new InputStreamReader(System.in));
String s = in.readLine();
Once you have the token in a String, it is easy to parse it into
one of the other types, as shown earlier in the FAQ. Yes, it is
bone-headed, as it makes the simplest case of keyboard I/O
unnecessarily complicated.
6.2 Why do I have trouble with System.out.println()?
A. Check the spelling. The last two characters are the letters
"ell enn" not "one enn".
The name of the method stands for "print line", since it prints a
String and goes to the next line, rather than staying on the same
line as System.out.print() does. Yes, the name is yet another Java
naming inconsistency, since the input equivalent is readLine(),
not readln().
6.3 How do I write to the serial port on my PC using Java?
A. If the port exists as a pathname in the filesystem, you can
open it as a file and read/write. You can also print text this way
by writing to "prn" or "lpt1" on a pc, and "/dev/something" on
Unix.
Writing a formfeed at the end of the file is essential on
Windows95.
//class that opens the printer as a file and writes "Hello World" to it
import java.io.*;
public class lpt
{
public static void main (String[] argv) {
try {
FileOutputStream os = new FileOutputStream("LPT1");
//wrap stream in "friendly" PrintStream
PrintStream ps = new PrintStream(os);
//print text here
ps.println("Hello world!");
//form feed -- this is important
//Without the form feed, the text
//will simply sit in the print
//buffer until something else
//gets printed.
ps.print("\f");
//flush buffer and close
ps.close();
}
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Exception occurred: " + e);
}
}
}
The bigger problem is if you wish to change the characteristics of
the port (e.g. baud rate, parity, etc). Java currently offers no
portable way to do this. You will need to use a native method, or
execute a system command. At least two companies have written a
library to drive the port. See
http://www.sc-systems.com has a library for Windows95,
WindowsNT, OS/2, Mac PPC, Solaris Sparc, Linux x86, FreeBSD
x86, HP/UX PA-RISC, and possibly others too.
http://www.cd.com/portio
In addition, there is a Unix serial port utility available with
source at:
http://www.blackdown.org/java-linux/downloads/Private/jarvi/rxtx-1.1.1p2.tar.gz
6.4 How do I append to a file?
A. There are two ways. JDK 1.1 introduced new constructors for two
of the output classes, that allowed you to set a boolean flag:
public FileWriter(String fileName, boolean append) throws IOException
public FileOutputStream(String name, boolean append) throws IOException
Another way is to do this:
RandomAccessFile fd = new RandomAccessFile(file,"rw");
fd.seek(fd.length());
Then write using fd. Note that the latter method does not take
advantage of the "append" mode present in many operating systems
(such as all unixes). Such a difference may make a difference with
multiple processes or threads appending to the same output file.
This can happen frequently, even if not intended by the
programmer, e.g. with logfiles in multitasking environments. With
the lack of file-locking mechanisms in Java the issue becomes even
more significant.
6.5 Is it possible to lock a file using Java ?
A. Java does not feature an API to lock a file or regions within a
file. Code that needs to do this must take one of three
approaches:
1. implement an advisory locking scheme using features that
Java does have (synchronized methods). This allows you to
lock files against use by other Java code running in the same
JVM.
2. Use an atomic operation like "file delete" and have all
processes (Java and non-Java) follow the same protocol: if
the file was deleted by you, you have the lock, and you
create the file again to give up the lock.
3. make calls to native code to issue the locking ioctls.
This approach is not portable, but gives you a shot at having
your locks respected by other programs using standard locking
ioctls outside Java.
6.6 How do I make the keyboard beep in Java?
A. In JDK 1.1, java.awt.Toolkit has the method beep(). It does not
work on NT 4.0 (bug).
System.out.print("\07");
System.out.flush();
should work, and works in JDK 1.0.2, too. That's the ASCII BEL
character (Java doesn't support the C abstraction of '\a' for an
alert character).
6.7 How do I execute a command from Java? How do I do I/O redirection
in Java using exec() ?
A. See answer to question 10.5
6.8 How do you do file I/O from an applet?
A. For security reasons, untrusted applets accessed across the
network are restricted from doing certain operations, including
I/O. This prevents rogue applets from sending out your private
data, or deleting it. A trusted (signed) applet can perform these
operations (JDK 1.1 on).
The following suggestion is for server-side input.
- You can read a file on the server if you can create a URL
referencing the file. Then open a stream, then use any of the
stream-based methods to read.
This allows reading but not writing. It requires an http demon
running on the server, which will usually be the case.
try{
URL url = new URL("http://somewhere.com/test.txt");
// or URL url = new URL( getDocumentBase(), filename);
DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream(url.openStream());
String s = dis.readLine(); //read till you get a null line.
} catch(MalformedURLException e){System.out.println("URLException:"+e);}
catch(IOException e){System.out.println("IOException:"+e);}
You cannot write a file on the server this way.
The following suggestions are for server-side output.
It absolutely requires the cooperation of the server to allow an
applet to write a file to the server. This cooperation may take
any of several forms:
+ ftp server process
+ file server (custom written)
+ listening on a socket for data from applets
+ CGI script
+ Java RMI (remote method invocation)
In particular:
1. Or open a socket back to the server and read/write the
data. Have a process on the server that listens for socket
connections from applets and does the requisite I/O. This
does I/O on the server.
2. Or use a CGI script or servlet on the server to write when
browsed. There is some source at
ftp://ftp.oyster.co.uk/pub/java/fileIO/
The following suggestions are for client-side I/O.
3. Use a trusted applet (see section on security). This will
permit local I/O without any of the restraints mentioned
above. In this regard, the appletviewer and many other
browsers regard applets loaded from a local filesystem
(rather than across the net) as being more trustworthy, and
perhaps even allowed to do I/O.
4. Or use a browser that has a security policy that is
configured to allow file I/O (such as Sun's appletviewer).
Also see the answer to question 5.2 regarding the JENI
library.
6.9 I used a C program to write a binary file. When I instatiate a
DataInputStream on the file in Java, and try to readInt, I do not get
the correct numbers. Why is this?
A. Java does everything in network byte order (big-endian order),
as do many computers including Motorola, and SPARC. The Intel x86
uses little endian order in which the 4 bytes of an int are stored
least significant first. Rearranging the bytes on the way in will
get you the results you need. This is only necessary when the file
was written by a non-Java program on a little endian machine such
as a PC.
The following code will byte-swap little-endian integers into
network standard order
public int swap(int i) {
int byte0 = i & 0xff;
int byte1 = (i>>8) & 0xff;
int byte2 = (i>>16) & 0xff;
int byte3 = (i>>24) & 0xff;
// swap the byte order
return (byte0<<24) | (byte1<<16) | (byte2<<8) | byte3;
}
6.10 How do I make I/O faster? My file copy program is slow.
A. This is the purpose of BufferedInputStream. It is a flaw in
Java that buffered I/O is not the default, with a flag or
different constructor to turn it off. I/O is the second worst
designed package in Java, after the Date class.
6.11 How do I do formatted I/O of floating point numbers?
A. Look at http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/java/CoreJava-Format.html
for the html with the javadoc info. The actual file is called
http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/java/CoreJava-Format.java However,
you must rename the file to Format.java for it to compile.
Although many utilities claim to handle all varieties of C's
printf, as far as has been found, this is the only one to
correctly handle the equivalent of %e in printf.
6.12 How do I read numbers in exponential format in Java?
A: The program below (written by Steve Chapel) uses
StreamTokenizer to read data from the standard input and
recognizes doubles in exponential format (e.g. -1.23e-45).
import java.io.*;
public class ReadExponential {
public static void main(String argv[]) {
DataInputStream in = new DataInputStream(System.in);
StreamTokenizer st = new StreamTokenizer(in);
try {
while (st.nextToken() != StreamTokenizer.TT_EOF) {
switch (st.ttype) {
case StreamTokenizer.TT_NUMBER:
double num = st.nval;
int exp = 0;
st.ordinaryChars('\0', ' ');
st.nextToken();
st.whitespaceChars('\0', ' ');
if (st.ttype == StreamTokenizer.TT_WORD &&
Character.toUpperCase(st.sval.charAt(0)) == 'E') {
try {
exp = Integer.parseInt(st.sval.substring(1));
} catch (NumberFormatException e) {
st.pushBack();
}
} else if (st.ttype < 0 || st.ttype > ' ')
st.pushBack();
System.out.println("Num " + num * Math.pow(10, exp));
break;
case StreamTokenizer.TT_WORD:
System.out.println("Word " + st.sval);
break;
default:
System.out.println("Char '" + (char) st.ttype + "'");
break;
}
}
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("IOException: " + e);
}
}
}
6.13 I'm trying to read in a character from a text file using the
DataInputStream's readChar() method. However, when I print it out, I
get ?'s.
A. Remember that Java characters are 16-bit Unicode characters,
while many hosts systems store characters as 8-bit ASCII
characters. Therefore, to read individual chacters from a text
file, you need to ensure the proper conversion. The proper way to
do this is to use an InputStreamReader, which converts from 8 to
16 bit streams:
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream("myfile.txt");
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(fis);
char c3 = (char) isr.read();
The less-favored way (because it is not so portable, as the
encodings translation is not done) is just to read a byte and cast
it into a character:
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream("myfile.txt");
DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream(fis);
char c1 = (char) dis.readByte();
6.14 How do I delete a directory in Java?
A. JDK 1.0 did not support directory removal. JDK 1.1 supports
directory removal with the method:
public boolean delete() in class java.io.File
Make sure you don't have any open streams in the directory you're
trying to remove. Do a close() on all streams, even if the
underlying file is gone.
6.15 How do I tell how much disk space is free in Java?
A. There currently aren't any good Java APIs for system
introspection. There is no Java way to control processes, or look
at system resources. You have to Runtime.getRuntime.exec() to do
"df" on unix or "dir" on Windows right now.
6.16 What is the difference between the various ZIP formats: ZIP, GZIP,
and PKZIP?
A. GZIP files (the Gnu format) are not archives and compress only
one file. GZIP is essentially a one file subset of the Zip format.
Zip is an archive file format, popularized on PCs, that contains
multiple compressed files. PKZIP is a set of
commercially-available programs that create Zip files. All three
PKZIP, GZIP and Zip use the deflate compression format, which is
based on the LZ77 algorithm. This compression is also used by the
zlib library and the PNG graphics file format. The format is
specified in RFCs 1950, 1951, and 1952, and is unencumbered by
licenses or patents.
An alternative compression technology, LZW compression, is
encumbered by Unisys's patent. LZW is used in GIF files and by the
Unix compress command. Luckily, as well as being free from patent
restrictions, LZ77 also gives better compression than LZW. LZW is
the initial letters of the last names of the three computer
scientists who developed the algorithm (Lempel, Ziv, Welch).
The basic classes (all in java.util.zip) that read LZ77 Zip format
are Deflater and Inflater. These are used by the stream classes
DeflaterOutputStream and InflaterInputStream. The java.util.zip
classes GZIPInputStream and ZipInputStream inherit from
InflaterInputStream.
PKZIP is a commercial program for DOS, Windows, and OS/2, sold by
PKWARE Their FAQ (http://www.pkware.com/zipgfaq.html) specifically
says
"Because PKWARE has dedicated the .ZIP file format to the
public domain, it is possible for other people to write
programs which can read .ZIP files. NOTE THAT THE PKZIP,
PKUNZIP, PKSFX PROGRAMS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED SOURCE CODE AND
SUPPORT PROGRAMS ARE THE EXCLUSIVE PROPERTY OF PKWARE INC.
AND ARE NOT PUBLIC DOMAIN SOFTWARE PROGRAMS.
PKZIP's free (C language) source code was the basis for the JDK1.1
Zip package AND the GNU GZIP program. The Zip classes' Javadocs
acknowledge this.
The "other people" PKZIP's FAQ refers to is the InfoZIP project, a
bunch of hackers spread over the world producing free software
that works on most ANSI C compilers and platforms. See
http://www.cdrom.com/pub/infozip/
Jar files are in PKZIP format, but are not as complete as a full
filesystem archive format since file permissions are not saved.
Some versions of WinZip are known to be inadequate for processing
the full PKZIP format. Use infozip.
6.17 How can I use characters other than ASCII in Java?
A.Look for the article titled "Adding Fonts to the Java Runtime"
at
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/docs/guide/intl/fontprop.html.
This article explains how to add fonts to Sun's JDK, using the
font.properties file. [If anyone has similar information for
Netscape or IE, please send it in].
6.18 I did a read from a Buffered stream, and I got fewer bytes than I
specified, even though there are more bytes in the Stream.
A. Correct. This is one of the "gotcha's" of buffered input. The
system will try hard to buffer reads, even to the extent of
sending you less data than you asked for. Nothing is lost of
course, and you are always told how many bytes you actually got.
You will get the remaining bytes on a subsequent read. This is
also true with network operations (reads on sockets etc) and has
always been true regardless of the language used. You really have
to look at the "amount of data returned" field when using the
read(byte[], int, int) method of BufferedInputStream.
6.19 How do I get a directory listing of the root directory C:\ on a
PC?
A. The obvious approach of calling File.list("C:\"); does not
work. There are two reasons why this fails. First, slash is an
escape character in Java, so if you want a literal slash, you have
to repeat it. Second, you need to give the name of the directory,
i.e. dot. Putting this together, either of the following calls
will work
File.list("C:\\.");
or
File.list("C:/.");
------------------
7. NETWORKING & DISTRIBUTED OBJECTS
7.1 Should I use CORBA in preference to RMI? Or DCOM? Or what?
A. If your distributed programs are all in Java, then RMI provides
a simpler mechanism that allows the transfer of code,
pass-by-value of real Java objects, and automatic garbage
collection of remote objects.
If you need to connect to C++ (or other language) systems or you
need CORBA-specific services, then CORBA is your choice.
http://www.javaworld.com/javaworld/jw-10-1997/jw-10-corbajava.html
has a good intro to CORBA in the Java world.
In July 1997, Sun announced that it was aligning RMI to work more
closely with CORBA. Sun is simply adding an IIOP transport layer
to RMI to support interoperability with CORBA. Java programs can
then access CORBA-based objects through IIOP, the OMG's
CORBA-based protocol. This is very good news for those building
heterogenous Enterprise systems, although it will take some
additions to IIOP to support the pieces that RMI uses.
Microsoft spokespeople have tried to promote DCOM by spreading
misinformation that RMI is changing or being dropped. That is
totally wrong. The RMI API continues unchanged in its current
form. Using DCOM would restrict your code to only ever run on
Microsoft platforms using Intel hardware, and negates the "write
once, run anywhere" Java philosophy. Non-portable, single vendor
code should be avoided.
7.2 Why does <my java debugger/IDE/other> hang for a couple of minutes
if my Windows PC is not dialed up to the Internet?
A. Java has networking support built in. When the Java program
starts the Winsock dll automatically gets loaded. The first thing
this does is to try to resolve the fully qualified domain name for
your machine under the name "localhost". If your system doesn't
have this name mapped, it will try to query a nameserver on the
internet, which is typically (on a PC) your dialup ISP. So it
either prompts you to connect to the ISP, or waits till the
attempt times out.
You can avoid the problem by giving your system another way to
resolve DNS names. Edit the hosts file for your system (found in
%windir%\hosts on Win95 and %windir%\system32\drivers\etc\hosts on
NT) so that localhost and the full domain name are both mentioned.
So if my system is called goober.best.com change the hosts file
from
127.0.0.1 localhost
to
127.0.0.1 goober.best.com localhost
[If any networking gurus have improvements to this process,
send'em in!]
There is a longer, different procedure at
http://www.best.com/~pvdl Please send me mail (pvdl@best.com) if
either or both of these work or don't work for you, so I can
update the FAQ.
7.3 If I call the InetAddress.getByName() method with an
IP-address-string argument, like "192.168.0.1", I get an
UnknownHostException on some platforms, but not others. Code like
Socket sock = new Socket("155.152.5.1", 23);
triggers the exception. Why?
A. This is a platform difference that arises out of different
semantics in the underlying network libraries, and is [said to be,
but subject to confirmation] fixed in JDK 1.1. On Solaris and
Windows NT, the IP address string only works for IP addresses that
have an associated hostname. On Linux and Windows 95, the IP
address string works in all cases.
http://www.cdt.luth.se/~peppar/java/InetAddress/ has a workaround.
When InetAddress is instantiated with an IP address, a reverse DNS
lookup is done. If the IP address is not associated with a valid
hostname, the instantiation will fail. This is part of anti
DNS-spoofing, and in JDK 1.1 works because the reverse lookup will
not occur until the hostname is asked for. So in JDK 1.1,
InetAddress in = InetAddress.getByName("155.152.5.1");
should always work.
[Note: this info is still to be confirmed. Net gurus?]
7.4 I am using JDK 1.1.1 on Windows95, and when I start jdb I get
"Uncaught exception: java.lang.UnsatisfiedLinkError no winawt in shared
library path"
The same program works OK using jdk1.1
A. It *sounds* like your java\bin directory is not on your PATH
and so the system can't find the winawt DLL.
But actually the problem is the version of Microsoft's Visual C++
that was used to build the product. VC++ 4.2 incorrectly generates
code that depends on MSCVRT.DLL or in the case of java_g,
MSVCRTD.DLL. These DLLs are not present in (some versions of)
Win95. To make things even more interesting, some versions of
Win95 (yes, there are at least four different ones...) ship with a
broken MSVCRT.DLL (and MSVCRTD.DLL?) that seems to work, only it
doesn't, and after a while it dies.
Sun linked the winawt_g.dll with VC++ 4.2, which wrongly brought
in MSVCRTD.DLL, the debug version of the VC++ runtime. You have to
get that library from somewhere (like, say, VC++)
in order to get jdb to run.
You'll hit this problem any time you try to debug 1.1.1 code with
jdb on a win95 system that doesn't have VC++ (or the MSVCRTD.DLL
library from some other source) installed. At least this is a
problem you can solve without waiting for the next release.
Some people say that the missing library has been seen at
http://cag-www.lcs.mit.edu/curl/Binaries/PC/ Others say you need
to buy VC++ to get it.
7.5 I want to pass a class file to willing recipients who are using my
applet. Any ideas how?
A. You could use a trick: put your .class file(s) in a .zip
archive and use showDocument() on the URL. A person accessing this
will get a dialog box put up asking them about saving the file to
their local hard disk. You can see this in action and try it out
yourself at:
http://www.best.com/~rmlynch/saveit.html
7.6 How do you succeed with new URL(someURL) from behind a proxy
server?
A. Tell the run time system what you are trying to do, like this:
java -DproxySet=true -DproxyHost=proxy_host
-DproxyPort=proxy_port \MyJavaProgram
note proxyPort is optional and it defaults to 80.
7.7 What is "swizzle", as in "Swizzle this object?"
A. It means serialize. To swizzle an object is to recursively
serialize or flatten composed objects.
7.8 I have been using the Serializing capabilities in 1.1 to save some
objects to disk. I added a new field to one of my objects that get
serialized and now deserializing my old data no longer works. I get
this exception:
java.io.InvalidClassException: MacroData; Local class not compatible
A. You need to add a declaration such as
static final long serialVersionUID = 4021215565287364875L;
in the modified class. The actual value of this long is supplied
by the "serialver" utilitity suppied with the JDK. Any versions of
a class other than the first version require this static to be
defined
in the class. This is how versioning is achieved.
7.9 My socket code looks good, but is broken!
A. When using sockets you typically open both inward and outward
streams. If you close one of them, the other seems to 'break'
instantly. Check whether this is happening for you, by adding the
matched pair.
[comments from net gurus welcome]
7.10 How do I map between IP address and hostname?
A. In Java 1.1 (earlier releases were buggy) use:
String host = InetAddress.getByName("211.10.2.119").getHostName();
7.11 How do I embed an anchor in a URL? Just putting it as part of the
string in the constructor doesn't work.
A. Like this:
URL url = new URL("http://www.my_domain.com/my_page.html");
URL anchor = new URL(url, "#section2");
this.getAppletContext().showDocument(anchor);
7.12 RMI seems to have stopped working for me in JDK 1.1. Why is this?
A. The rules for where the client looks for a stub class seem to
have changed making it necessary to reset your class path on the
client after starting the rmi registry. In particular, it looks
like rmic was not updated to the new "don't need $CLASSPATH"
convention as the compiler was.
There are several very good sources available from Sun which cover
many simple and advanced RMI problems. They are:
+ The documentation, of course:
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/docs/guide/rmi/index.html
+ Dedicated FAQs on RMI and Object Serialization
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/rmi/faq.html
+ Mailing list RMI-USERS@JAVASOFT.COM with archive at
http://chatsubo.javasoft.com/email/rmi-users/
Visit the archive!
7.13 After a number of RMI client to server connections (55 on my
system), subsequent RMI clients trying to connect fail. Why?
A. You are hitting the default limit of 64 open file descriptors.
Try increasing the limit in your OS.
In addition there is currently a practical RMI connection limit
imposed by the scalability of the VM and the performance of object
serialization. In JDK 1.2 this is addressed. The actual number of
active clients you will be able to support will depend on the
workload mix you have (i.e. the number of clients, how often they
talk to the server, and how much work must be done per call).
7.14 How do I POST to a CGI script from an applet?
A. For an untrusted applet, the CGI script can only be on the
server that served the applet. Then use code like this:
try { sock = new Socket(host, 80);
dock = new DataOutputStream(sock.getOutputStream());
dock.writeBytes("POST "+cgiloc+" HTTP/1.0\n");
dock.writeBytes("Content-type: text/html\n");
dock.writeBytes("Content-length: " +my_string.length() + "\n\n");
dock.writeBytes(my_string+"\n");
dock.close();
sock.close();
uresp = new URL(getDocumentBase(),"respond.html");
getAppletContext().showDocument(uresp); }
The my_string contains the data you want to POST to the CGI
script. The string should be encoded in the special way CGI
expects. The class method java.net.URLEncoder.encode(my_string)
will do it.
If you request a url via the URLConnection/HttpURLConnection, the
server sets the content type, and your applet can use
URLConnection.getContentType() to get the type. Alternatively, use
setRequestProperty to set it, like this:
url = new URL(cgiUrl);
urlc = url.openConnection();
urlc.setRequestProperty("Content-type", "application/x-www-form-urlencoded");
-----------------
8. MULTI-MEDIA
8.1 Why won't my audio file play?
A. Java 1.1 and earlier releases use one audio format exclusively.
The audio file must be in .au format, recorded at 8 KHz, mono, in
mu-law encoding. If your audio clip is in a different format
(e.g., .wav) or a different frequency it must be converted to the
exact specifications above before Java can play it. Support for
.wav and other formats is part of the Java Media Framework coming
in JDK 1.2.
Search at www.yahoo.com for GoldWave for Win 95, sox for Unix and
similar conversion utilities for other systems. One conversion
utility in Java is at http://saturn.math.uaa.alaska.edu/~hursha
The source of a Java class to play linear PCM .WAV files is at:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/~cs1mjp/Java/WhiteBoard/WavePlayer.html It
can be used in any Java application or applet.
8.2 Does Java support Animated GIFs?
A. Java 1.0.2 and earlier releases use GIF and JPEG formats, and
do not use the GIF89 animated GIF format. (An animated GIF is one
that contains successive frames of an image, so when they are
displayed in quick sequence the image appears to contain
movement). When you display an animated GIF in Java 1.0.2, you
will just get the first frame. There doesn't appear to be any easy
way to get other frames from the image.
The advantage of an animated GIF file is that there is only one
file to download, and it is simple to do simple animations. The
advantage of programmatic control over individual frames is that
you control the rate and order of displaying them.
Here's a surprise: JDK 1.1 supports the animated display of
animated GIFs. For simple animations animated GIFs are a lot
easier and lighter-weight than coding an animation explicitly.
8.2.0 How do I create animated GIFs?
A. Use GIFanimator from ULead (said to be the best)
http://www.ulead.com, or GIF Construction Set from Alchemy
Mindworks
8.2.1 How do I prevent animated GIFs from flashing while
displaying?
A. The problem is most likely that in your paint method you
have
g.drawImage(img, ix, iy, this);
You should change this to
g.drawImage(img, ix, iy, getBackground(), this);
This will change all the transparent regions of the image to
the background color before painting to the screen. If you
paint transparent images directly to the screen they flicker.
If that does not solve it then check that:
1. ImageUpdate is
public boolean imageUpdate(Image img, int flags, int x,
int y, int width, int height) {
if ((flags & (FRAMEBITS|ALLBITS))!= 0) {
repaint();
}
return (flags & (ALLBITS|ABORT)) == 0;
}
2. update is
public void update(Graphics g) {
paint(g);
}
If you have a background Image behind the partly transparent
animated GIF you will have to double buffer. You can crop the
backgound image so you won't have to double buffer the full
app and waste too much memory.
8.3 Does Java support transparent GIFs?
A. GIF89a images with a transparent background show up as
transparent without further filtering. This has been supported
from 1.0 on. Java correctly displays both animated GIFs and
transparent GIFs.
Even better, you can fill the transparent pixels with a color (so
they appear non-transparent in Java). Just pass the fill color
explicitly:
drawImage(img, x, y, w, h, fillcolor, this);
Further, you can filter the pixels of an Image to turn any bits
you wish transparent. However, the most you can do is reveal what
is underneath the image. You cannot reveal what is underneath the
applet (i.e. on the browser itself). By default applets have a
plain grey background.
8.4 How do I play video in Java?
A. Use the Java Media Framework Player API
The spec can be found at
http://java.sun.com/products/java-media/jmf/mediaplayer/
Intel has released a SDK for the Java Media Framework Player API.
The SDK is for Windows 95 and Windows NT For more information, see
http://developer.intel.com/ial/jmedia
SGI has released an implementation of JMF for IRIX:
See http://www.sgi.com/Products/motion/
8.5 How can I play *.au files from an application?
A. You've got 2 options:
a. Use the AudioClip or AudioPlayer class in sun.audio
http://www.javaworld.com/javaworld/javatips/jw-javatip24.html
If you take this option, you can only play AU files. Worse,
your code is no longer 100% pure Java, as it relies on a
vendor library.
import sun.audio.*;
URL url; ...
AudioStream audiostream = new AudioStream(url.openStream());
AudioPlayer.player.start(audiostream);
...
AudioPlayer.player.stop(audiostream);
b. Use the new Java Media Framework API, allowing a wide
range of video and audio formats to be played back. See
previous question for implementations of this.
8.6 How do I read in an image file, in an application?
A. Use
Image img = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getImage(fname);
8.7 When I initialize a component, I call MyComponent.getImage() to get
its image. createImage() returns null! I know the image works
elsewhere. What's wrong?
A. A peer component needs to exist for your component before you
can get its image. This is done by the method addNotify() (surely
one of the most poorly named methods in all Java -- it doesn't
mean "add a Notify". It means "Notify that the Component has been
added to a Container". This tells the system, "whoops, I'd better
create the peer for this Component right away). addNotify will be
called for you when you add your component to a container.
If you override addNotify(), don't forget to call
super.addNotify() in your overriding version.
8.8 How can I force a reload a fresh version of an image into my
applet? My image file is changed periodically, and I want the applet to
go and retrieve it, not cache it.
A. You need to turn off caching for the URL.
URL url = null;
URLConnection con;
try {
url = new URL(getDocumentBase(),"image.jpg");
con = url.openConnection();
con.setUseCaches(false);
} catch (MalformedURLException e1) {System.err.println(e1.getMessage());}
catch (IOException e2) {System.er.println(e2.getMessage());}
Note: some programmers have reported that it caches anyway, even
if that do this. That is a browser bug.
One programmer reported that even after turning off caching and
calling image.flush() before getImage(..), he was still seeing the
same picture even though it had been changed on the server.
He worked out a solution: access the image via a cgi script that
returned a URL. This redirects the browser, and he put in an
Expires: header as well to force the reload. Painful and
laborious, but it got the result.
8.9 How can I save an Image file to disk in jpg or gif format?
A. A number of people have written utilities to do that. One of
them is available at the same place as this FAQ:
http://www.best.com/~pvdl
Jef Poskanzer has written an abstract ImageEncoder class and
implemented it for GIFs and PPMs. Those are at
http://www.acme.com/java/software/
Hong Shi wrote a PPM to JPEG convertor.
http://www.ctr.columbia.edu/~hshi/report6880.htm
Florian Raemy has written a program that encodes a JPEG then
decodes it again. http://lcavwww.epfl.ch/demos/jpeg.html
8.10 What causes this problem?
$ appletviewer m.html
Premature end of JPEG file
sun.awt.image.ImageFormatException: JPEG datastream contains no image
at sun.awt.image.JPEGImageDecoder.produceImage(JPEGImageDecoder.java:133)
at sun.awt.image.InputStreamImageSource.doFetch(InputStreamImageSource.java:215)
at sun.awt.image.ImageFetcher.run(ImageFetcher.java:98)
A. There's a known bug in early releases of the JDK which can
cause the above failure when reading a JPEG across a slow
connection. The failure only occurs if the JPEG contains a large
application data block (APPn marker) --- the problem is that the
JPEG decoder is trying to skip over the APPn and failing if not
all of the APPn has been received yet. The quoted error message is
only one of several possible complaints, but they all stem from
the same root.
Photoshop is the most common source of JPEGs containing oversize
APPn blocks. In particular, if you allow Photoshop 4 to save a
thumbnail (preview) in a JPEG, the thumbnail plumps up Photoshop's
private APPn marker to several K, which is usually enough to cause
this problem.
There are several possible workarounds:
1. Get a newer JDK --- this problem is said to be fixed in
1.1. (If you are putting images up on the Web, this isn't
much of a solution, because you can't assume visitors to your
site have an up-to-date Java installation.)
2. When making JPEGs for Web use from Photoshop, make sure
you have turned off the "save thumbnails" preference. (This
is a good idea quite aside from bug workarounds, because the
thumbnail is just a waste of download time as far as a Web
browser is
concerned.) You might still have a problem if you've got
verbose comments or lots of paths being saved into the file,
but 99% of the time, getting rid of the thumbnail will make
Photoshop's APPn small enough to not trigger the Java bug.
3. Use a tool such as 'jpegtran' (from the Independent JPEG
Group) to strip out the Photoshop APPn entirely without any
loss of image quality. Recommended answer for the compulsive
byte-trimmer.
4. (Last resort) Load and resave the image in a different
image editor that won't insert any APPn or other overhead
data. This implies a JPEG generational loss, so I don't
recommend it if you are picky about image quality.
Any large overhead marker will cause the same problem; 4K of
comment text, say, in a COM marker. So Photoshop is not the
only source of tickling this bug.
8.11 How can I convert between GIF and JPEG formats?
A. In a word: don't.
There's hardly any overlap between the set of images that JPEG
works well on and the set that GIF works well on. Sometimes, with
enough care, you can get an acceptable conversion ... but most of
the time gif<->jpeg conversion will just turn your image to mush.
Far better to pick the right format in the first place.
For more info see the JPEG FAQ at
http://www.faqs.org/faqs/jpeg-faq/
8.12 If you have an InputStream (rather than a file) that contains an
Image, how can you display it?
A: Using this method, and some adroit shuffling.
Toolkit.getImage(URL url)
Create a thread that pretends to be an http server. Make it listen
to some port (8888 for example) for incoming requests. When the
thread gets a request, it should simply whisk up the appropriate
http headers and follow it by the InputStream. Thus the component
that has the input stream and wants to do the getImage(url) can
now invoke:
Toolkit.getImage("localhost:8888/")
The thread will act as a stream-to-url adapter, and send back the
data It saves you from having to read 200K of JPEG data before you
can begin drawing anything.
8.13 How can I record sounds in Java?
A. The Java Media Framework coming in JDK 1.2 will support this.
In the meantime, there is a package for Win95/NT available at
http://www.scrawl.com/store/
It supports 8, 16-bit, stereo, mono, 11025, 22050, 44100 Hz
record/play, load/save .WAV files.
8.14 Does Java have any built-in support for displaying HTML?
A. The JDK doesn't currently have any support for rendering HTML.
The Swing software that will appear in JDK 1.2 has an elementary
(graphics, tables, text) HTML bean that is good enough for simple
rendering (help files, email, etc). Other alternatives include:
+ JavaBrowser http://www.ii.uib.no/~alexey/jb/index.html Free
source, free for use under GNU LGPL licence, HTML 2.0 (sort
of).
+ ICE Browser - Java Bean Component
http://www.bgnett.no/datatech/ICEBrowser/ Free binaries for
use in free applications. Commercial licensing available
including source - flat fee licence. Thin HTML client!
Lightweight! HTML 3.2
+ HotJava HTML Component - Java Bean Component
http://www.javasoft.com/products/hotjava/bean/index.html $195
for private use binary licence. HTML 3.2
+ HTML browser (free source)
http://barium.tn.tudelft.nl/people/gool/java/html/Html.html
+ Web Window Browser http://www.opencube.com/example_wwb.htm
$139 - no sources.
+ jHelp ($20-650)
http://w3.nai.net/~rvdi/jhelp/jhelp2/jhelp.html jHelp is a
HTML browser component written in Java, HTML 2.0
-----------------
9. SECURITY
9.1 What is a "trusted applet"?
A. JDK 1.1 introduced the notion of a "trusted applet" which is
one that has been cryptographically-signed to guarantee its origin
and make it tamper resistant. Trusted applets can be granted more
system access privileges than untrusted applets.
You preconfigure your browser with a list of whose X.509
certificate you trust, and then applets arrive with X.509's
attesting to their keys. It's easier than it sounds.
9.2 What is the story with Java and viruses? What is the blackwidow
virus?
A. Java was designed with security in mind. The security features
make it very difficult, probably impossible, to attach a virus
(self- copying code) to a Java applet. As far as is known, there
has never been a Java virus.
There has been mention of a "Java virus" called "BlackWidow" in
the media (it was mentioned in Unigram in late 1996, and obliquely
on the RISKS newsletter in February 1997). A request to the editor
of Unigram for more information brought the answer that there was
no more information, it was just a report of a rumor. As far as is
known, this story exists *only* as rumors reported on by the
press. There is no actual Java virus or blackwidow virus (there
was a legitimate commercial product of that name, since renamed).
If anyone has more concrete information about a virus that can
attack a Java applet (again, this is thought to be impossible),
please would they contact the FAQ maintainer with details.
9.3 Why do I get the warning string at the bottom of popup
windows "Unsigned Java Applet Window" in my applets?
A. This is a security feature, to make certain that users can
always tell that a window asking for their password and credit
card details (or whatever) is from an applet. There should be no
way for an untrusted applet to work around this message. See also
the answer to 4.1.3.
9.4 Where can I find crypto libraries for Java?
A. Cryptographic libraries are not part of the Java release
because US Government policy classifies strong cryptography under
the same rules as munitions. Its export is regulated under the
International Traffic in Arms Regulations. Many people regard this
as a Kafka-esque (and futile) attempt to stem the use of
cryptography inside the US.
A comprehensive and free crypto library (called Cryptix) is at
http://www.systemics.com/software
Another crypto library for Java is at
http://www.acme.com/java/software/Package-Acme.Crypto.html
Blowfish, CRC16, CRC32, DES, DES3, IDEA, RC4, ROT13 (can they
really call that "crypto"?), and more.
One commercial Java encryption source (from Ireland) is
http://www.baltimore.ie/jcrypto.htm
A complete crypto API for Java (with HTML documentation) at:
http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Heights/8298
The library provides comprehensive and complete range of crypto
library and functions covering DES, 3DES, IDEA, Blowfish ...and
RSA, DH, DSA and PGP access to Java programmers. The crypto
functions are based on the C cryptlib, by Peter Gutmann. It would
be illegal to export this under current US government rules, but
the author of the code is outside the US, and not subject to US
export regulations. Download it today before it becomes illegal.
Also, early access to Sun's Java Cryptography Extension (JCE) is
available for JDK 1.1 at:
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/jce
(This may not be exported outside the USA and Canada).
There's a Q&A archive at
http://jeeves.javasoft.com/hypermail/java-security-archive/index.html
An actual port of PGP v2.6.3i to Java is at
http://tassun.math.nsc.ru
9.5 How do I find out what these terms mean?
A. Read Bruce Schneier's excellent book "Applied Cryptography 2nd
Ed." for more info on what these terms mean. Read David Kahn's
excellent (if exhaustive) book "The Codebreakers" for more info on
the history and background of encryption.
9.6 Where is Javasofts Security FAQ?
A. Javasoft's security FAQs can be found at
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/applet/security/capabilities.html
http://java.sun.com/sfaq/index.html
See also
http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/docs/guide/security/
------------------
10. Java IDIOMS
10.1 How do I convert a String to an int?
A. There are several ways. The most straightforward is:
int i = Integer.parseInt(<String>);
or
i = Integer.parseInt(<String>,<int radix>);
Note: there are similar methods for Byte, Short, and Long.
int i = Integer.valueOf(my_str).intValue();
also works but involves the creation of an extra object. Note: use
this for floating point values, as there are no parseDouble or
parseFloat methods.
float f = float.valueOf(my_str).floatValue();
10.2 How do I convert an int to a string?
A. String s = String.valueOf(i);
or
String s = Integer.toString(i);
or
String s = Integer.toString(i, radix);
or
String s = "" + i; // briefer but may result in extra object allocation.
Note: there are similar classes for Double, Float, Long, etc.
10.3How do I print the hex value of an int?
A. Another way is
int i = 0xf1;
System.out.println("i is hex " + Integer.toHexString(i) );
10.4 How can you send a function pointer as an argument?
A. Simple answer: use a "callback". Make the parameter an
interface and pass an argument instance that implements that
interface.
public interface CallShow { public void Show( ); }
public class ShowOff implements CallShow {
public void Show( ) { .... }
public class ShowMe implements CallShow {
public void Show( ) { .... }
public class UseShow { CallShow callthis;
UseShow( CallShow withthis ) { callthis = withthis; }
void ReadyToShow( ) { callthis.Show( ); }
// in some other class that uses all this stuff:
UseShow use_1 = new UseShow( new ShowOff() );
UseShow use_2 = new UseShow( new ShowMe() );
and then the ReadyToShow() method on use_1 or use_2 will call the
appropriate method, as if you had stored a pointer to the method.
10.5 How do I execute a command from Java?
A. Use Runtime.getRuntime.exec( myCommandString ) Where
myCommandString is something like "/full/pathname/command"
10.6 How do I do I/O redirection in Java using exec() ?
A. This solution works on Unix platforms using either JDK 1.0.2,
or JDK 1.1. The trick is to use an array of Strings for the
command line:
String[] command = {"/bin/sh", "-c", "/bin/ls > out.dat"};
If you don't do this, and simply use a single string, the shell
will see the -c and /bin/ls and ignore everything else after that.
It only expects a single argument after the -c.
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
class IoRedirect {
public static void main(String Argv[]) {
try {
String[] command = {"/bin/sh", "-c", "/bin/ls > out.dat"};
Process p = Runtime.getRuntime().exec(command);
p.waitFor();
System.out.println("return code: "+ p.exitValue());
}
catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println("IO error: " + e);
}
catch (InterruptedException e1) {
System.err.println("Exception: " + e1.getMessage());
}
}
}
10.7 So why can't I exec common DOS commands this way (as in 10.6)?
A. The reason is that many of the DOS commands are not individual
programs, but merely "functions" of command.com. There is no
DIR.EXE or COPY.EXE for example. Instead, one executes the command
processor (shell) explicitly with a request to perform the builtin
command, like so: Runtime.getRuntime().exec("command.com /c dir")
for example. On NT, the command interpreter is "cmd.exe", so the
statement would be
Runtime.getRuntime().exec("cmd /c dir")
This is a Windows, Windows95 and NT-specific problem.
10.8 OK, how do I read the input from a command?
A. As above (10.5, 10.6), adjusted like this:
BufferedReader pOut=
new BufferedReader(
new InputStreamReader(p.getInputStream()));
try {
String s = pOut.readLine();
while (s != null) {
System.out.println(s);
s = pOut.readLine();
}
} catch (IOException e) { }
Another possibility is to read chunks of whatever length as they
come in:
...
p = r.exec(cmd);
InputStream is = p.getInputStream();
int len;
byte buf[] = new byte[1000];
try {
while( (len = data.read(buf)) != -1 ) {
String str = new String(buf,0,0,len);
System.out.println( "Process out: " + str );
}
catch( java.io.EOFException eof ) {
...
}
catch( java.io.IOException ioe ) {
...
}
10.9 How do I compile code which has a cyclic dependency, i.e class
pkg1.X contains a reference to class pkg2.Y ?
A. You throw both classes at the compiler at the same time.
javac pkg1/X.java pkg2/Y.java
10.10 How can I store the errors from the javac compiler in a DOS file?
javac foo.java > errorfile seems not to work
A. javac write errors to stderr, so on NT use:
javac myfile.java 2> errors.dat
On Win95, this doesn't work (as command.com is very poor
software), so you have to use the javac error redirection
mechanism:
javac -J-Djavac.pipe.output=true myfile.java > errors.txt
10.11 How can I pretty-print Java source?
A. Try http://www.CS.ORST.EDU/~speton/percolator/ (currently in
Beta)
Or http://www.parallax.co.uk/~rolf/download/jpp.pl
Some Unix utilities work adequately:
indent (fails with "//" comments though)
cb (very few style choices though)
alias printjava 'vgrind -lC++ -t -w \!* | lp'
works pretty well too.
10.12 What is the point of creating the temporary reference to
this.layoutMgr? This code is from the 1.0 AWT, and the programmer was
probably pretty skilled.
public synchronized void layout() {
LayoutManager layoutMgr = this.layoutMgr;
if (layoutMgr != null) {
layoutMgr.layoutContainer(this);
}
}
A. The code makes a local copy of a global variable for one or
both of two reasons.
The first reason is that accessing local variables can be faster
than accessing (non final) member variables It's good for loops or
where there are many references in the source.
The second reason is so that even if other threads update the
global,
this.layoutMgr = someOtherLayoutMgr;
this method will still have a pointer to the original layoutMgr.
If the local variable were omitted, and another thread used the
setLayout() method to change layoutMgr to null between when the
layout method checked for null and when it invoked layoutMgr's
layoutContainer method, a NullPointerException would result.
Note that the synchronized keyword on the layout method doesn't
help any, since setLayout (which could make such a dire change)
isn't synchronized. Synchronized methods only lock out other
synchronized methods on this object. (The unhelpful synchronized
keyword on the layout method is gone in JDK 1.1.)
There are two alternative solutions. One would be to make
setLayout synchronized and make layoutMgr private, so that it
can't be set other ways. This provides a stronger form of thread
serialization, in that you would never be able to see an old
layout manager being used after it had been replaced. However, it
is slower. Another option that provides no increase in thread
serialization over the original would be to catch the
NullPointerException.
Threads programming is hard! This idiom was probably put in place
by someone who got really bitten by this in the past.
10.13 What is the difference between "a & b" and "a && b" ?
A. "a & b" takes two boolean operands, or two integer operands. It
always evaluates both operands. For booleans, it ANDs both
operands together producing a boolean result. For integer types,
it bitwise ANDs both operands together, producing a result that is
the promoted type of the operands (i.e. long, or int). "|" is the
corresponding bitwise OR operation. "^" is the corresponding
bitwise XOR operation.
"a && b" is a "conditional AND" which only takes boolean operands.
It always avoids evaluating its second operand if possible. If a
is evaluated to false, the AND result must be "false" and the b
operand is not evaluated. This is sometimes called
"short-circuited" evaluation. "||" is the corresponding
short-circuited OR operation.
Possible mnemonic: The longer operators "&&" or "||" try to
shorten themselves by not evaluating the second operator if they
can.
10.14 If I create a thread, and then null out the reference to it, what
happens to the thread? Does it get interrupted or what?
A. The code looks like this:
Thread t = new Thread( my_runnable_obj );
t.start();
...
t = null; // what happens to the thread?
The answer is that *you* may no longer have a reference to the
thread, but the JVM still does. Once a thread is started, and as
long as it keeps running, it is a root object. Root objects are
the starting points for "things in use" that the garbage collector
uses.
10.15 How do I calculate the number of days between two dates?
A. There is no API for this (there should be), but you can
calculate it by hand, like this:
Calendar earlierDate = new GregorianCalendar();
Calendar laterDate = new GregorianCalendar();
earlierDate.set(1997, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0); // Jan 01, 1997
laterDate.set(1998, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0); // Jan 01, 1998
// the first getTime() returns a Date, the second takes
// that Date object and returns millesecs since 1/1/70.
// The API has misleading and horrible naming here, sorry.
long duration = laterDate.getTime().getTime()
- earlierDate.getTime().getTime();
long nDays = duration / (24 * 60 * 60 * 1000);
System.out.println("difference in days: " + nDays);
10.16 How can a Java program determine the level of JDK support given
by the underlying VM? I.e. is it running in a JDK 1.0.2 or 1.1 VM?
A. Look at the java.version system property with:
String ver = System.getProperty("java.version");
There isn't a lot of standardization on the string contents
however. Another possibility is to try { ... } a library method
that didn't exist in JDK 1.0.2, and catch the exception. If you
got an exception, it's a 1.0 implementation.
------------------
11. FOR C and C++ AFFICIONADOS
11.1 How do I translate C/C++ into Java or vice-versa?
A. In general it is not simple to translate C/C++ into Java, as
Java lacks the arbitrary pointer arithmetic of those languages. If
your C code does not use pointer arithmetic, automatic translation
gets a lot simpler. Try these URLs:
http://www.ist.co.uk (search for X-Designer 4.6: Java
edition).
http://members.aol.com/laffra/c2j.html
http://www.ilog.com/
http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~schmidt/java_notes.html
Going the other way there are currently three freely-available
tools to translate Java into C. It seems that these have been done
for hacking value, rather than practical purposes.
+ j2c from Japan,
http://www.webcity.co.jp/info/andoh/java/j2c.html
+ Toba from the Sumatra research project, translates 1.0.2
.class files into .c source code
http://www.cs.arizona.edu/sumatra/toba
+ JCC from Nik Shaylor.
http://www.digiserve.com/nshaylor/jcc.html
None of them support the AWT yet, and both j2c and JCC have
additional restrictions.
There's a product to convert Visual Basic to Java. Details at
http://www.blackdirt.com and
http://www.javadelphi.com (also a Delphi-to-Java source
converter) and
http://www.tvobjects.com
This program dumps info about the class file:
http://www.professionals.com/~cmcmanis/java/dump/index.html
Chuck McManis was one of Sun's original Java whackers.
11.2 How are finalizers different from C++ destructors?
A. Java objects are not explicitly deleted and do not have
destructors. Instead they are implicitly garbage collected when
the JVM realises your program can no longer access them. Typically
this technology is _not_ based on reference counting and _will_
cope with circular references.
Every object has a routine called finalize() which will be called
before the object is collected. This is Java's nearest equivalent
to C++'s destructor. However, it is not a good idea to rely on
finalization for the timely freeing of resources.
This is because garbage collection and hence finalization may be
arbitrarily delayed, and may never happen at all if the program
terminates before it runs out of memory. You should instead
provide your objects with methods similar to Graphics.dispose() to
free resources, and call the
dispose() method explicitly when you have finished using them -
typically within the "finally" clause of a "try/catch" block. You
may then call your dispose() method from within your finalize()
method as a last-ditch attempt to free the resource if someone
forgets.
Alas, all this means the C++ idiom of "object construction is
resource aquisition" does not translate well to Java. However,
note that 90% of destructors in C++ are there to free memory, and
the GC means you don't need to do that in Java. As well as fixing
an important source of bugs, the GC is essential to Java's
security model; without it you could forge object references by
preserving the reference after the object has been deleted.
If your program appears to be crashing due to running out of some
system resource (like File, Window or Graphics handles), it
probably because the system is running out of handles before it
has run out of memory. Check that you have called the dispose()
method (or equivalent) on every object that uses system resources.
You can help the GC a little bit more by explicitly
NULLing out references that you've finished with.
11.3 What's the Java equivalent of sizeof()?
A: There isn't one. sizeof() in C and C++ is used in three main
places:
1) To check on the size of a primitive type. In Java, the
sizes of primitive types are fixed in the language
specification (a short is _always_ 16 bits; an int is
_always_ 32 bits, etc), so this is no longer necessary.
2) In memory allocation (i.e. malloc (32 * (sizeof(int));) In
Java you always allocate a specific type of object, rather
than a block of raw memory that you will fill as you like.
The system always knows the size of the kind of objects you
are allocating. So sizeof is not needed.
3) in pointer arithmetic (i.e. p += sizeof (int)) Pointer
arithmetic of this type is not allowed in Java, so this isn't
necessary, either.
For all these reasons, there is no need for a Java sizeof()
operator.
11.4 Does Java have the equivalent of "const" arguments in C and C++?
A. Java 1.1 adds the ability to use the "final" keyword to make
arguments constant. When used to qualify a reference type,
however, this keyword indicates that the reference is constant,
not that the object or array referred to is constant. For example,
the following Java code:
void foo(final MyClass c, final int a[]) {
c.field = 7; // allowed
a[0] = 7; // allowed
c = new MyClass(); // final means this is NOT allowed
a = new int[13]; // final means this is NOT allowed
}
is roughly equivalent to the following C/C++ code:
void foo(MyClass * const c, int * const a) {
c->field = 7; // allowed
a[0] = 7; // allowed
c = new MyClass(); // const means this is NOT allowed
a = new int[13]; // const means this is NOT allowed
}
Java does not have any equivalent to the following C/C++ function
declarations:
void foo(const MyClass *c); // a pointer to a const class
void foo(const int *a); // a pointer to a const int
void foo(const int a[]); // a pointer to an array of const ints
11.5 Are there any hacks around this?
A. Certainly! There are always hacks around stuff. One way of
enforcing constant values is to have two interfaces, a constant
one and a non-constant one, e.g.
public interface ConstFoo {
int getValue();
}
public interface Foo extends ConstFoo {
int getValue();
void setValue(int i);
}
Then when you want to receive a parameter that cannot be modified
you have:
void noChange(ConstFoo foo);
For a parameter that can be modified
void change(Foo foo);
11.6 How can I write C/C++ style assertions in Java?
A. The two classes shown below provide an assertion facility in
Java. Set Assert.enabled to true to enable the assertions, and to
false to disable assertions in production code. The
AssertionException is not meant to be caught--instead, let it
print a trace. Since the exception is not meant to be caught, we
just extend Error instead of RuntimeException. As with
RuntimeException, a method does not need to declare that it throws
Error. In addition programmers are less likely to write
"catch(Error) ..." than "catch(RuntimeException)".
With a good optimizing compiler there will be no run time overhead
for many uses of these assertions when Assert.enabled is set to
false. However, if the condition in the assertion may have side
effects, the condition code cannot be optimized away. For example,
in the assertion
Assert.assert(size() <= maxSize, "Maximum size exceeded");
the call to size() cannot be optimized away unless the compiler
can see that the call has no side effects. C and C++ use the
preprocessor to guarantee that assertions will never cause
overhead in production code. Without a preprocessor, it seems the
best we can do in Java is to write
Assert.assert(Assert.enabled && size() <= maxSize, "Too big");
In this case, when Assert.enabled is false, the method call can
always be optimized away, even if it has side effects.
public class AssertionException extends Error {
public AssertionException(String s) {
super(s);
}
}
public final class Assert {
public static final boolean enabled = true;
public static final void assert(boolean b, String s) {
if (enabled && !b)
throw new AssertionException(s);
}
}
11.7 How do I do stuff like scanf and sscanf in C/C++? And how do I do
stuff like sprintf, e.g.
float x = 12345.6789;
printf("%6.3f/n", x);
A. You can break a string like "5 loaves 2 fishes" into its parts
by using java.util.StringTokenizer. This is the Java equivalent of
sscanf().
StreamTokenizer does a similar thing on a file or any stream (i.e,
what scanf() and fscanf() do in C).
To do formatted character output, create a format string, and then
use that to format your binary value, e.g.
import java.text.*;
float fi = 1234.56789F;
DecimalFormat df2 = new DecimalFormat( "0.000" );
System.out.println( df2.format(fi) );
gives:
1234.567
There are lots of different characters you can feed to the
DecimalFormat constructor, not just "0". See
$JAVAHOME/src/java/DecimalFormat.java source for details.
11.8 What is the Java equivalent of C++ friend"?
A: The keyword "friend" in C++ is a hack to allow a piece of code
to access the private member declarations of another class. In
Java, you would do this by labelling, not the friend, but the
private members. Instead of making them private, make them
protected. Classes in the same package have automatic "friendship"
in that they can access each other's protected fields.
11.9 Does anything like the C++ Standard Template Library exist for
Java ?
A: Yes, only it's better and simpler to use in Java. It's called
the Java Generic Library. This library (JGL) is freely
downloadable from http://www.objectspace.com/
It includes about a dozen nice data structures (including sets and
bags) and algorithms like unions, searching, and sorting.
[Some Java vendors are bundling it with their next release]
-------------------
12. FURTHER RESOURCES
12.1 Useful URLS
Site with the latest copy of this FAQ: http://www.best.com/~pvdl/
Other Java resources:
The Java "Hall" of Fame: http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/java/
good glossary: http://oberon.ark.com/~roedy
conversions: http://oberon.ark.com/~roedy/convert.html
good JDBC FAQ: http://www.yoyoweb.com/Javanese/JDBC/FAQ.html
general Java: http://java.miningco.com/
Tutorial:
http://java.sun.com:80/nav/read/Tutorial/index.html
http://www.phrantic.com/scoop/onjava.html
Java Book lists:
http://lightyear.ncsa.uiuc.edu/~srp/java/reviews.html
http://www.netcharts.com/majug/reviews.html
http://www.avena.net/~dong/book.htm
http://wwwiz.com/books
Javasoft site: http://java.sun.com
General sharing and exchange of Java info:
http://www.gamelan.com
http://www.JavaShareware.com
12.2 Newsgroups
These are the Java newsgroups since the reorganization that I
arranged in April 1997
comp.lang.java.help simple programming and setup questions
comp.lang.java.announce (moderated) announcements
comp.lang.java.advocacy for arguments: no it isn't, yes it is
comp.lang.java.programmer programming in Java
comp.lang.java.security security issues
comp.lang.java.machine JVM and native interfaces
comp.lang.java.databases JDBC,ODBC, java access to DBs.
comp.lang.java.softwaretools IDES, editors, compilers, tools, etc
comp.lang.java.gui AWT, IFC, JFC, AFC, Vibe, etc etc
comp.lang.java.beans Software components in Java
Please make an effort to post only to the single most appropriate
group.
As with the other language groups on Usenet (comp.lang.c,
comp.lang.c++, etc) questions about products from specific vendors
that only work on one specific platform are best posted to other
newsgroups. For example, questions about ActiveX belong in
comp.os.ms-windows.programmer.ole, not the Java groups. For
questions about J/Direct try the group
microsoft.public.java.visualj++ or microsoft.public.java.sdk.
These are available from Microsoft's news server
msnews.microsoft.com .
12.3 Are there any Java libraries for sorting, etc?
A. A sort class has not yet been made part of the standard
library. It should be. If you have the demos that come with the
JDK, take a look at the class SortDemo. Alternatively, use one of
the several classic sorts available from Roedy Green. They are
supplied free with heavily commented Java source code.
See "QuickSort", "HeapSort" and "RadixSort" in the Java glossary
at http://oberon.ark.com/~roedy/index.html .
Also, try the Java Generic Library. This library (JGL) is freely
downloadable from http://www.objectspace.com/
Also Visual Engineering has JChart at: http://www.ve.com. No
licensing fees.
12.4 Why doesn't somebody write a shell in Java? Then they could use it
on all platforms!
A. Somebody has done just that. Look at http://www.jsh.net/
12.5 Are there any URLs for other libraries?
A. Indeed, there are. The Java3D Repository
http://java3d.sdsc.edu/
12.6 Are there any URLs for regular expression handlers in Java?
A. http://www.oroinc.com/products/OROMatcher.html This comes from
ORO Inc, is free, and handles Perl5 style exprs.
-----------------
Acknowledgements:
Original FAQ copyright February 1997 Peter van der Linden
Contributions from:
Matt Kennel, Patric Jonsson, Brad Van Tighem, Tony Hursh , Glenn L
Vanderburg, Peter Jones, John McDowall, Jim Driscoll, Uday, Dave
Harris, Bill Wilkinson, Tom Valesky, Dan Drake, Giles Thomas,
Mitch Baltuch, Guy Ruth Hammond, Gordon Keith, Jason Brome, Shani
Kerr, Steve Chapel, Timothy Wolters, Robert Lynch, Jake Cormier,
Sean C Sullivan, Joseph A. Millar, Jim Frost, Jim Balter, Jeff
Bauer, John Kochmar, Carl Burke, William Stubbs, Mark Smith,
Volker Turau, Real Gagnon, Russell Gold, Max Hailperin, Bill
Tschumy, Marco Nijdam, Marc Pawlowsky, Laurence Vanhelsuwe,Ian
Macgregor, Mike Faulkner, Rich Koch, Will Clark, Govind Seshadri,
Rich Simkin, Ian Stiles, Kieren, Darren Christie, Tom Lane,
Michael Jungmann, Rob Mayoff, George Ruban, Tom McCann, David
Hopwood, Thomas Phan, Kai Stuke, Rolf Howarth, Derek Snider, David
Boydston, Andy Godwin, John F. Dumas, Doug Bell, David J. Biesack,
Tiger Quimpo, Martin Hugh Rogers, Brian Krahmer, Ian Burrell,
Nikki Locke, Bin Li, Jackson Thompson, Steve Odendahl, Greg Smith,
Jeffrey C. Ollie, Mark Halvin, Jeremy Cook, Lak Ming Lam, Peter S.
Morris, Mark Halvin, Juergen Keil, Alex Stewart, Mike Abney,
Rodney Stephenson
[<your name here>: send in a suggested FAQ *with the answer*]
----
I am maintaining a FAQ list to address specifically programming
issues
(not a general tutorial on Java). Please feel free to mail me
entries for it.
Question with answer gets you a credit in the FAQ.
I can be emailed at: pvdl@best.com
Sun Certified Java Programmer.
-- end --
--
Peter van der Linden, Java Programmer's FAQ
Certified Java Programmer. ---> http://www.best.com/~pvdl